In the collection of the State Hermitage there are several fragments of velvet from the tomb in Khanly-dere (Bakhchisaray). The large pattern pattern consisting of a "grid of pointed ovals" and a rosette in the center, woven with gold, primarily evoked associations with Turkish velvets dating back to the time around the XVI century, while small details are characteristic of the ornament of Italian fabrics of the XV-XVI centuries. Analysis of the ornament and technical parameters allows us to consider it Ottoman and date it to the second half of the XV-beginning of the XVI century.

The tomb in Khanly-dere is close in time to the Turba (tomb) Hadji Giray (second half of the 15th - mid-16th centuries), located nearby. From the Turbe of Haji Giray comes a collection of silk fabrics of the XV-XVI centuries, used as shrouds and coverings for coffins. It is impossible to determine who the tomb belonged to, but it is likely that representatives of a fairly noble family are buried in it, judging by the presence of rich, gold-woven velvet.

Keywords: Bakhchisarai, mausoleum, turbe, velvet, silk, Crimea, Turkey, Italy, Khanly-dere tract.

VELVET FRAGMENTS FROM THE VAULT IN KHANLI-DERE (BAKHCHISARAY)

Anastassia TEPLYAKOVA

There are several velvet fragments in the Hermitage Museum collection derived from the Bakhchisaray mausoleum (burial vault) at Khanli-Dere stow. Large repeat of the textile ornament in velvet consisting of "ogival figures grid" with brocaded rosettes in the center first brought associations to Turkish velvets dating from about the sixteenth century. But smaller details such as 7-part medallions with brocaded rosettes in its centers bordered with leaves and tiny floral sprouts are peculiar to Italian textiles of the fifteenth-sixteenth centuries. Ornament and technical analysis of this velvet shows that it was likely produced in the Ottoman Turkey and can be dated from the second half of the fifteenth - early sixteenth centuries.

Khanli-Dere vault is very likely simultaneous to the Ttirbe (mausoleum) of Haci I Giray (second half of the fifteenth - middle of the sixteenth centuries) situated not far away. The Ttirbe preserved an outstanding collection of silk textiles of the fifteenth-sixteenth centuries used as covers of coffins and as grave clothes. It is hardly possible to attribute Khanli-dere vault, but it possibly belonged to a certain noble clan partly because of use of silk velvet brocaded with gold thread.

Keywords: Bakhchisaray, mausoleum, turbe, velvet, silk, Crimea, Turkey, Italy, Khanli-Dere stow.

Fragments of patterned velvet fabric of reddish-brown color, sometimes pierced with metal thread (Figs. 1, 2), are in the Golden Horde collection of the Department of Oriental Art of the State Hermitage Museum (inv. N CHM-1422, 1423). The exhibits were

Anastasia TEPLYAKOVA-Research Associate of the State Hermitage Museum; e-mail: cajodh@gmail.com; teplo_ov@mail.ru

Anastassia TEPLYAKOVA - Researcher, curator of archaeological textiles of the Mongol period. Oriental department, State Hermitage Museum, Sankt-Petersburg.

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Fig. 1. Fragments of velvet. State Hermitage Museum, inv. N World Cup-1422.

published by the author in the introductory article to the catalog of the exhibition "Tsarist Style "[Kramarovsky, Teplikova, 2009, p. 28]' as originating from the mounds of the Belorechensk burial ground in the North Caucasus. Later, in the accounting documents, data were found that these velvets were found in Bakhchisarai. The purpose of the article is to attribute them, clarify the origin and archaeological circumstances of the find.

Origin. Fragments of patterned velvet came to the Hermitage together with two other silk fabrics (GE, inv. N CHM-1420, 1421) from the Imperial Archaeological Commission in 1901. The column "Origin" indicates that all of them were found in Bakhchisarai in 1899 by a certain Ivanenko. In the report of the Imperial Archaeological Commission for this year, it is indicated that in the spring of 1898, the local police chief A. G. Ivanenko drew attention to 4 symmetrically located mounds on Moslem

1 Unfortunately, incorrect information was also repeated in the article published in the collection of memory of A.V. Bank in 2010 [Kramarovsky, Teplyakova, p. 4671.

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2. Fragments of velvet. State Hermitage Museum, inv. N World Cup-1423.

The cemetery is located in the Khanly-dere tract near Bakhchisarai, to the east of the road to the Assumption Monastery (OIAK, 1902, pp. 37-38).

Members of the Tauride Scientific Archival Commission A. O. Kashpar and A. I. Markevich, who arrived in Bakhchisarai to resolve the issue of setting up a local museum, excavated one of the mounds, which turned out to be tomb 2. The following year, the Imperial Archaeological Commission entrusted the continuation of excavations to the police chief A. G. Ivanenko, who opened two more crypts. Due to the paucity of finds in the first crypts, it was concluded that further research was impracticable, 3 and the excavation of the fourth crypt was not completed, as indicated in the report of the archaeological commission, due to "the onset of inclement weather" [OIAC, 1902, pp. 37-38]. The results of the excavations were published in the supplement to the newspaper "Novoe Vremya" for 1898, in OAK for 1899, "Izvestiya Tavricheskoi Uchenoi Archivnoy Komissii" No. 29 and No. 30. The excavation materials were transferred to the newly established museum in the Bakhchisarai Palace, the Taurida Scientific Archival Commission (now the Central Museum of Taurida in Simferopol) [Kirilko, 2009, pp. 439-446; Gavrilyuk,

2 " About this excavation, see correspondence of N. Shcherbina-Kramarenko in the appendix to the newspaper "Novoe Vremya" May 2, 1898, N 7965 (with Fig.) and messages of A. O. Kashpar in the Izv. Tavrichesky Uch. Arch. Comm., N 29, p. 85 and A. I. Markevich-ibid., N 30, p. 121 (with Fig.) 3 on p. 37].

3 "clearing the fourth hillock, in all likelihood, will not present anything important" [ITUAK, N 30, p. 122].

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3. Drawing of crypt No. 3 (according to A. G. Ivanenko [ITUAK, 30, Fig. 9]).

Ibragimova, 2010, p. 5], and the fabrics were sent to the Imperial Archaeological Commission, from where they were received by the State Hermitage Museum.

In 1954, V. E. Weimarn visited the cemetery in Khanly-dere and drew up a schematic plan of the necropolis with the designation of three crypts. The plan is now in the archive of the Bakhchisarai Museum [Kirilko, 2009, p. 442].

Fabrics from the Hermitage collection come from the third crypt, located approximately 42-43 m (20 fathoms) south-east of the first tomb (ITUAK, No. 30, 1899, pp. 121-122). The crypt was a domed structure and was not looted (Fig. 3):

"It found 10 decayed coffins, of which 8 were located next to each other, and two - in front, to the right of the entrance. One coffin in the middle was placed on two iron four-legged legs; it was covered with crimson brocade with golden flowers, and under it were found the remains of a smooth silk shroud. The other coffins were covered with pieces of morocco leather. All the skeletons had their heads turned to the west" (OIAC, 1902, p. 38).

Pieces of brocade cloth were also found in the first of the crypts examined [ITUAK, N 29, 1899, p. 86], their location is unknown.

Similar luxurious fabrics were found in the lower tier of the Hadji Giray Turbe, located nearby. The Khan's tomb dates back to the second half of the XV - mid-XVI centuries (the first burial was of Haji Giray in 1466, the last one was of Sahib Giray and his family members in 1551, border 16, a teenage son-border 18, children-N 13 and 15) [Gavrilyuk and Ibragimova, 2010, pp. 93-94]. The chronicle "Tarikh-i Sahib Giray Khan" by Muhammad Nidai Kaisuni-zade (Remmal Khoja) describes the funeral of Sahib Giray and his son:

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"[199ob. So we went on, and at last the day came when we came to the garden of Olakla. Khan's mother, his wives, sisters, and daughters set up people along the road to let them know that the body was approaching. As soon as they saw the funeral procession, they tore their hair, scratched their faces, put on their dresses inside out, and came to the meeting weeping and weeping, kissing the coffins and shedding tears, so that those who heard their screams had not only tears but blood flowing from their eyes. There was such a scream that the language can not convey. The wagons / / [200] stopped for a while and the women wept so bitterly that many of them became ill and fainted. Then the words were spoken, "We all belong to God and to Him we return," and the carts moved on, and all these beauties remained behind the carts, weeping and weeping. We went and arrived at Salajik, where the friends of the late Khan, men and women, raised such sobs and weeping that the tears that flowed from their eyes formed seas and rivers. Finally, the tomb of Hadji Giray was opened and the Khan and his son were buried there. The Qur'an was recited for their pure souls, and their tombs were covered with more than 30 veils of various expensive materials, which were then divided among the ulama, and 500 florins were distributed to the poor. Then, after praying for them and entrusting them to the mercy of God, the people dispersed. The Khan was then 50 years old, and Gazi-Giray Sultan was 13 years old." co-authored with I. V. Zaitsev's Staroosmanskii) 4.

Despite the fact that the description suggests that the veils of "various expensive materials" were distributed, archaeological studies of the mausoleum of 18 burials in 15 revealed the remains of veils and shrouds made of silk fabrics and leather (now stored in the Bakhchisarai Historical, Cultural and Archaeological Museum-reserve) [Gavrilyuk, Ibragimova, pp. 70-89].. Silk patterned fabrics woven using gold threads belong to expensive fabrics. As in the case of the velvet from the Khanly Dere tomb (from the State Hermitage Museum), in some cases it is difficult to confidently identify the fabrics as Italian or as Ottoman. It is very likely that both were used as veils and shrouds. The attribution of velvet from burial No. 8 (from the subgroup of early burials, probably Khan's) [Gavrilyuk and Ibragimova, 2010, p. 92, fig.226], woven using two types of metal weft: flat and boucle (broccato riccio sorpa riccio type), is indubitable. This technique was mastered by Italian weavers in the 1420s, and then it spread to Spain, but was never mastered by Ottoman craftsmen [Monnas, 2012(1), p. 19], which means that at least one fabric was produced in Italy. However, the study of textiles from the tomb of Haji Giray is a separate topic.

The burial rite has many similarities with what is recorded in the Report of the Imperial Archaeological Commission on the tomb in Khanly-dera. In both cases, we are talking about a Muslim rite - the absence of any clothes, burial in a shroud (in both cases, silk fabrics or leather), the presence of veils made of expensive fabrics (for high-ranking persons). The most important burials are located on a raised platform: in the Haji Giray Turban, these are either metal supports or marble plinths. 5 In the Khanly dere tomb, the central coffin is mounted on two tetrapods.

It is difficult to guess who the tomb in Khanly-dera was intended for. However, it can be argued that, firstly, it is close to the time of Hadji Giray's turban (the second half of the 15th-mid - 16th centuries), and secondly, representatives of a rather noble family are buried in it, judging by the presence of a shroud made of silk patterned cloth and rich, woven with gold velvet used as a coffin cover.

The ornament of the velvet fragments is organized by a dense, gold-woven mesh and large seven-part medallions formed by a change of pile and non-woven patterns.-

4 The author is grateful to I. V. Zaitsev for his advice and translation of the text from Tarikh-i Sahib-Giray Khan (History of Sahib-Giray Khan). See also: [Gokbilgin, 1973].

5 On the funeral rite, see: [Gavrilyuk, Ibragimova, p. 89-93].

6 As suggested in the conversation by N. A. Gavrilyuk.

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4. Reconstruction of the velvet ornament, State Hermitage Museum, inv. N World Cup-1422, 1423 (A. N. Teplyakova).

owl patches in velvet. In the center of the medallion is a gold-woven rosette motif and "bulbs" that change from row to row of medallions. This central motif is framed by a leafy pattern with small flower shoots extending from it.7
Safety status. One of the fragments (World Cup-1422) was sewn from two pieces of fabric, the original seam was preserved. There are still traces of metal rivets (probably for attaching to the coffin). The exhibits were restored, but the date of restoration and its circumstances are unknown. The fabric is duplicated on tulle, dried and crumbles a lot. Fragments were made up of smaller ones in order to restore the pattern's rapport. However, it is impossible to restore it completely (Fig. 4). The pattern's rapport is 49-50 cm on the base, 30 cm on the weft.

Analysis of the ornament. The large pattern 8, consisting of a "grid of pointed ovals" (Kullanda, 2007, p. 14) and a rosette in the center, woven with gold, primarily evoked associations with Turkish velvets dating back to about the XVI century. At the same time, the shape of the medallion, its filling, in particular small flower shoots extending from the central figure, are characteristic of the ornament of Italian fabrics of the XV-XV1 centuries. 9

Grape leaf motif (five-or seven-part medallion) at first, an independent motif, later supplemented by the pomegranate fruit in the center, plant shoots and palmettes, appeared in the ornaments of Italian fabrics by the middle of the XIV century. 10 and became widespread from the XV century. The size of medallions can vary; often they are not the main motif of the ornament, but are combined with images of birds (as on fabrics from the Museum of Applied Arts, Berlin [Errera, 1927, cat. 45; Klesse, 1967, Abb. 105; Wilckens, 1992, cat. 235, 236] and from drawing patterns at the Textile School in Krefeld [Klesse, 1967, Abb. 103], animals (silk from the Museum of Applied Arts, Berlin [Wilckens, 1992, cat. 235, 236]) or plants. Analogies appear in the paintings of Italian artists of the XIV century. Andrea Orcagna, Jacopo di Sione, Nardo di Sione, Giovanni del Biondo, Agnolo Gaddi, Giovanni di Bartolomeo Cristiani, and others [Klesse, 1967, cat. N 264].

7 Fragment sizes: WM-1422-maximum width-54.0, maximum length-52 cm. WM-1423 - maximum reconstructed width - 62 cm, length - 77 cm.

8 In particular, A. Ballian refers to a large pattern as a sign of Turkish fabrics [Ballian, 2008, p. 80].

9 For tissue samples, see: [Errera, p. 157-177, cat. 158-183; Klesse, Tafel XI; Lo Stile dello Zar, p. 124-140, cat. 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 32, 33, 36]. Image of fabrics in painting: [Klesse, Tafel V, VII; Lo Stile dello Zar, p. 127. cat. No 25; p. 138-138, cat. No 34-35].

10 A. Wardwell writes that ornaments of grape shoots, leaves, and fruits appeared in the first half of the 14th century, and they can be traced throughout the 14th century. Wardwell, 1976-1977, p. 177-226].

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Fig. 5. Velvet. State Hermitage Museum, inv. N T-684.

Italian fabrics since the 15th century are characterized by extreme imagination and sophistication of ornamental solutions. Therefore, well-known motifs were often transformed by weavers into fantastic forms. Some well-known artists of that time were engaged in the development of textile patterns, and at the weaving centers there were special professions of artists who created patterns for fabrics [Monnas, 1987, p. 416-424].

A large group of fabrics has been preserved since the first half of the XV century, in the ornament of which there are spotty seven-part medallions with a flower inside. One of the earliest examples is a fabric from Riggisberg (Klesse, 1967, Tafel XI). The main space is filled with seven-part medallions with grenades inside. Pomegranates have a characteristic "scaly" filling (like cut pomegranates) and a tuft at the top.

The medallion with garnet (lotus, artichoke) with small flower shoots extending from the center meets numerous analogies in paintings by Italian masters of the XV century, for example, in Andrea del Castagno, fresco "Madonna and Child and Saints", 1445 (Collection of Contini Bonacossi, Florence), Carlo Crivelli, "Madonna and Child", 1490-1493 (National Gallery, London), etc. The popularity of fabrics with this decoration is evidenced by a large number of fragments preserved in museums, for example, published silks in the" Catalog of Ancient Fabrics " by Isabel Herrera [Errera, 1927, p. 167-178].

Thus, the ornament consisting of medallions in the form of a grape leaf with a pomegranate in the center has become one of the most common types of ornament. It is possible to trace its development in the 15th century from simpler and laconic forms to more complex ones, enriched with fantastic motifs.

Analogies to the large details of the velvet pattern from the Oriental Department can be considered a group of ornately similar velvets with individual elements woven in gold, from the collection of the Topkapi Palace and Putna Monastery in Romania. Their ornament consists of a grid of pointed ovals formed by shaped leaves. Inside the grid are scalloped medallions with a rosette in the center, embroidered with gold. Various details, such as the shape of the medallion's festoons, small, woven flowers on stems extending from the central rosette, suggest that this composition is derived from the traditional Italian ornaments of silk fabrics and, in particular, from the composition reconstructed on velvet from the Oriental Department. One of the samples of this group was presented in 1503 to the Putna Monastery by Maria Voikitsa, wife of Stephen III the Great, ruler of the Moldavian Principality, where it was used as a lectern cover (Topkapi Saray Museum, Inv. nos. 13/1916, 1917, 1919; Putna Monastery, Romania, inv. no 55) [Ipek, 2002, p. 116, pi. 67, p. 241, 333-334]. This fact gives a terminus ante quern for the group of these fabrics and, probably, a wider range of fabrics, which also includes velvet from the Oriental Department.

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Another example of velvet from the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, published in the catalog of the exhibition " Venice and the East "(Venise et L'Orient, Paris, L'Institut du monde arabe-New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2006-2007) [Carboni, 2006, p. 193, fig. 2; MAM, 1970.65.9], which according to a number of signs is attributed to Turkish production, has two elements in the ornament that make it possible to consider it an analogy to our velvet: a "grid" woven with gold with floral rosettes, and a "rhombus" motif with plant shoots inside (Fig. 5).

The "rhombus" motif is more clearly represented on another velvet 11 from the collection of the Department of Western European Applied Arts of the State Hermitage Museum (inv. N T-684) [Lo Stile dello Zar, 2009, p. 156, cat. 48], the ornament of which is very close to the velvet from the Department of Oriental Art, and the attribution of which also causes difficulties. Among the important common features, I would like to draw attention to the following:: 1) the mentioned "rhombus" motif; 2) a grid-not completely covered with gold, but having an identical organization; 3) flower rosettes in a grid, covered with gold; 4) a medallion, in which, however, the number of segments differs: in velvet from the East Department, seven of them are reconstructed, in fabric from the West Department - five; 5) the shape of the medallions is the same, the lower segments of the medallions end with similar plant shoots; 6) between the segments of the medallion there are "plant shoots"; 7) a central rosette woven with gold; 8) flower shoots extending from the central rosette.

Velvet with a similar pattern is in the collection of the Victoria and Albert Museum (inv. N vol. 359-1977) [Monnas, 2012(1), p. 146, cat. 48]. The differences in the ornament are insignificant: first, the more abundant use of metal weft: it forms the entire grid of pointed ovals (as in velvet from the Oriental Department), and secondly, the ornamental organization of this grid is somewhat different.

Thus, three fabrics (two from the Hermitage Museum and one from the Victoria and Albert Museum) should be combined into one group. But at the same time, velvet from the Department of the West was published in the catalog "Royal Style" with the attribution Italy (?), the beginning of the XVI century. [Lo Stile dello Tsar, 2009, p. 157, cat. 48], while in the catalog of Renaissance velvets, a copy from the Victoria and Albert Museum is identified as Turkish (the likely place of production is Bursa), late 15th century.

During the 15th and early 16th centuries, there was a confusing situation in the migration of silk and velvet patterns. Velvet production on a large scale began in Italian centers at least as early as the fourteenth century. Two pieces of red Lucca velvet were mentioned in the inventory of Pope Clement V in 1311 [Devoti, 1966, p. 34, 37]. In the 14th century, similar velvets were produced in Venice and Florence [Monnas, 2012(1), p. 8].

Francesco Pegolotti (author of "Trade Practice", 1340s) mentions pieces of velvet silk fabrics in the western (mainly Italian) market: in Genoa, in Famagusta in Cyprus, in Sicily, in Venice, Naples (Napoli di Principato) , and many types of velvet (velluti di piu ragioni) in Pisa [Pegolotti, 1936, p. 79, 85, 109, 139, 180, 209, 216].

The most famous center of velvet production was Venice. Venetian weavers produced all types of patterned velvets, including those with gold threads [Monnas, 2012(1), p. 8]. At the end of the 15th century, there were more than two thousand working machines in Venice, and 1,500 centners of raw silk were imported from the East [Davanzo Poli, 2005, p. 27]. Various types of velvets were produced in Lucca: both without a pattern, and with a gold thread and a satin background, however, according to some sources-

11 This velvet as the closest analogy was suggested by Tatyana Nikolaevna Lekhovich, curator of the temporary exhibition of the State Hermitage Museum "Royal Style" in Prato, Italy, during the preparation of the catalog in 2009.

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nikam, in the early 15th century. this production was discontinued 12. Nevertheless, a century later, at the court of the English monarch Henry VIII (1509-1547), preference was given not to Florentine and Genoese, but to the scarlet velvets of Lucca [Monnas 2012(2), p. 251-252].

In the 1440s, the expansion of the silk manufactory in Italy began. At the end of the 15th century, the production of silk fabrics was successfully organized in various cities, such as Milan, Ferrara, Modena, Siena, Naples, and in the 16th century. it has spread everywhere [Mola, 2000, p. 4]. At the beginning of the 16th century, Venice experienced a decline in fabric production due to the loss of leadership in the Mediterranean market [Davanzo Poli, 2005, p. 27].

Since the middle of the 15th century, the process of organizing new silk-weaving centers has expanded beyond the peninsula, spreading along the Mediterranean coast. The presence of Italian craftsmen on the Iberian Peninsula became so significant that in 1476 they managed to organize a guild of velvet weavers in Valencia [Mola, 2000, p. 20-21]. Direct evidence of velvet production in Spain earlier than the 15th century has not been preserved, but we cannot exclude the possibility of their production here in limited quantities and in an earlier period [Monnas, 2012(1), p. 11].

Thus, starting from about the middle of the 15th century, the silk and velvet industry expanded dramatically, first within Italy itself (1440s), then "spilled out" beyond the Apennine Peninsula. The organization of velvet production in Turkey dates back to the same period (mid-second half of the 15th century).

John Schiltberger, in A Journey through Europe, Asia, and Africa from 1394 to 1427, mentions a silk production center in Bursa (but not velvets):

"These are the lands through which we passed: first, we passed through the region of Astara, which is rich in silk; then through Georgia, inhabited by Christians who consider St. George their patron; then through the country called Lahijan, where silk also grows; then through the country of Shirvan, where silk is collected, from which they make good fabrics in Damascus and Kashan, as well as in the capital of pagan Turkey - Bursa. Some of this silk is also exported to Venice and Lucca, where it is used to make excellent velvets" (Schiltberger, 1984, ch. 25).

Under Mehmed II the Conqueror (1451-1481), it was decided to change the situation with Italian dominance in the production of velvets and other silk fabrics. Looms were installed in Bursa, a major silk trade and production center in northwestern Anatolia (Stanley, 2004, p. 125). At the end of the 15th century, the leading position among the weaving guilds was occupied by the guild of velvet weavers (kadifeci) in this city [Monnas, 2012(1), p.12]. Bursa velvets were produced over the next two centuries, and during this period the influence of Italian samples can be traced very clearly [Stanley, 2004, p. 125].

The oldest extant Bursa velvets are those with a cintamani pattern (double wavy line), dating from the second half of the 15th century (Sardjono, 2006, p. 198; De Jonghe, 2004, p. 93-94, cat. V3.23; Ipek, 2002, fig. 286]. Their good quality suggests that the Ottoman weavers by this period had mastered the technique of velvet weaving to perfection. Written sources indicate that Bursa was an important center of fabric production in the 15th century, so it can be assumed that this place produced cintamani from velvet long before the 15th century (Sardjono, 2006, p. 198). In addition to Bursa, weaving was organized in Istanbul, which later came to the fore: by 1545 there were already 18 velvet weavers in the city [Monnas, 2012(1), p. 12], as well as in the cities of Bilecik, Aleppo, Edirne, Ankara, Tosya, Damascus, etc. [Kullanda, 2007, p. 30].

12 In 1419, there is evidence from the chronicler Giovanni Sercambi that these types of velvet were no longer produced in Lucca (Tognetti, 2002, p. 15).

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Some fabrics in the XV-XVI centuries were made in Venice by order of the Turkish court, and in Bursa Italian fabrics were imitated, which were called "foreign kemha made in Bursa "and"...chatma " (varieties of satin and velvet fabrics, respectively) [Kullanda, 2007, p. 15; Biniok, 1985, p. 241]. The same situation with imitation of Venetian velvets also developed in Florence, where weavers produced "zetani velluti alia Viniziana" (Monnas, 2012 (1), p. 8; Schorta, 1991, p. 64-69). However, at the beginning of the 16th century, the opposite situation began to develop: the popularity of Turkish velvets led to the fact that" Ottoman patterns " were reproduced on Venetian velvets [Denny, 2006, p. 187-190].

Both sides produced fabrics for export. First of all, there are Italian fabrics in Turkey. Venice was the first state to establish diplomatic contact with the Ottomans and receive trade privileges. Italian velvets bound in manuscripts were actively used during the reign of Sultan Mehmed II (the earliest velvet-bound manuscript dates back to January 1475). Under Bayezid II, textile markets in Bursa were actively developed, which also attracted Italian merchants (see: [Ipek, p. 155-159]). Secondly, Turkish fabrics are present in Italy. At least some of the silks made their way to Venice as diplomatic gifts. An example of this is the Bursa velvets presented in 1483 by Sultan Bayezid II (1481-1512) to the Venetian ambassador [Mack, 2002, p. 24; Monnas, 2012(1), p. 12]. Both Ottoman and Italian fabrics are also present in other regions that had political, economic and geographical ties with these states (the Great Horde, the Crimean Khanate, the Principality of Moldavia). An Ottoman source reports that the ambassador of the Khan of the Great Horde, Sheikh Ahmad, to Sultan Bayezid II received, among other things, "cloth, velvet, gilded silk cloth from Bursa, as well as a stable boy's dress made of scarlet velvet from Bursa", and Sheikh Ahmad's brother, Kojak, received a stable boy's dress made of speckled velvet and two woven velvets from Bursa [Zaitsev, 2004, p. 104].

According to the pattern, it can be quite difficult to distinguish fabrics, and sometimes it is impossible. There are velvets whose ornamentation leaves no doubt about their attribution (for example, cintamani), but there is a group of fabrics that combine in the so-called international style and are defined in different publications in completely different ways: from Turkey to Spain [Lo Stile dello Zar, 2009, p. 156, cat. 47; p. 158, cat. 49; V&A, 1357-1877; MMA, 46.156.120; Howard, 2007, p. 80, cat. No 79].

Technical characteristics. Recent publications on both Ottoman and Italian velvets, with a detailed technical dossier, allow us to compare these characteristics with the parameters of velvet. Of particular interest is S. Sarjono's article in the Venice and the Orient catalog [Sardjono, 2006, p. 192-203], which described in detail the technical characteristics of three velvets from the Metropolitan Museum of Art and Cooper-Hewitt in order to attribute them as Italian or Ottoman. The catalogue of Renaissance velvets from the collection of the Victoria and Albert Museum, published in 2012 by Lisa Monnas [Monnas, 2012(1)], is extremely important; it also helps to publish items on the websites of major museums, which are often accompanied by such descriptions [MMA, 1970.65.9], and many other publications.

First of all, we are interested in fabrics that are ornamentally close to velvets from the Oriental Department, as well as those that are well dated as velvets from the Topkapi Palace and Putna Monastery, which are attributed as Ottoman based on their technological parameters (Table 1).
All these velvets have significant common features: first, split velvet, with lint-free sections and a metal weft marking. Background weave - main atlas 5 (slight differences in the number of threads separating one warp and weft dressing from another - "decochement" 2 or 3), weave in areas with a marking weft - twill weft, 4 threads are connected to 1 thread, direction of oblique lines (rib) from left to right (S). [

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Table 1

Comparative characteristics of velvets

Sample N 1: GE, inv. N World Cup-1422, 1423

Sample N 2: MMA, 1970.65.9 [Sardjono, 2006, p. 200]

Sample No. 3: SNM, 1951-151-1 [Sardjono, 2006, p. 201]

Sample No. 4: Topkapi, 13/1917, 1919 [Ipek, p. 333-334]

Sample No. 5: V&A, inv. N vol. 359-1977 [Monnas, 2012(1), p. 146, cat. 48]

Fabric width

approx. 62 cm (reconstructed)
Ornament rapport: 49-50 cm on the base, 30 cm on the duck

64.5 cm from edge to edge

65.5 cm from edge to edge

62.5 cm from edge to edge
Pattern rapport: 65×22 cm.

92.8×61 m
Ornament rapport: 51.3×approx. 31 cm

Edge width

-

0.7-0.8 cm

0.6 cm

1.0-1.2

-

Fabric type

split velvet with lint-free sections and metal weft marking

split velvet with lint-free sections and metallic and silk weft markings

split velvet with lint-free sections and metal weft marking

split velvet with lint-free sections and metal weft marking

split velvet with lint-free sections and metal weft marking

Background interweaving
Interweaving in areas with marking weft

atlas 5 (decochement 3) weft twill 4.1, S (metal wefts + background base) every third thread of the background base binds the metal weft
Tightly, without gaps between the metal threads

atlas 5 (decochement 2) weft twill 4.1, S (metal wefts + background warp) every third thread of the background warp binds the metal weft
Loosely, large intervals between the metal wefts

atlas 5 (decochement 2) weft twill 4.1, S (metal wefts + background warp) every third thread of the background warp binds the metal weft
Loosely, large intervals between the metal wefts

atlas 5 (decochement 2) weft twill 4.1, S (metal wefts + background base) every third thread of the background base binds a metal weft

atlas 5) (decochement 3 twill weft 4.1, S (metal weft + background base) every third thread of the background base binds the metal weft

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Table 1 (end)

Sample N 1: GE, inv. N World Cup-1422, 1423

Sample N 2: MMA, 1970.65.9 [Sardjono, 2006, p. 200]

Sample No. 3: SNM, 1951-151-1 [Sardjono, 2006, p. 201]

Sample No. 4: Topkapi, 13/1917, 1919 [Ipek, p. 333-334]

Sample No. 5: V&A, inv. N vol. 359-1977 [Monnas, 2012(1), p. 146, cat. 48]

Edge Interweaving

-

atlas 5

atlas 5

-

-

Warp threads: ground

Silk, weak Z-twist, fine thread

Silk, strong Z-twist

Silk, strong Z-twist

Silk, Z

Silk, Z

Pile

Silk, no twist

Silk, no twist

Silk, weak S-twist

Silk, no twist

Silk, no twist

Edge

Silk, Z-twist, paired or stranded threads

Silk, Z-twist, paired or stranded threads

Order (unpaved: pile)

6:1

6:1

6:1

6:1

6:1

Base density (cm) (Number of tufts)

13

12

12

12

12/13

Weft threads: background

Silk, Z

A. Binder (trame de couvrage): silk, z, thick bundles
B. Background: silk, no twist, thin

A. Binder (trame de couvrage): silk, S, thick bundles
B. Background: silk, Z, thin

Silk, with or without twist

Silk

Metal Weft

Silver, gilt, S-twist (not tight)

Silver, gilt on both sides, S-twist (not tight)

Silver, gilt, S-twist (not tight)

Metal strip, s-twist

Silver, Gilt, S-twist

Metal weft core

Silk, weak s-twist (or not twisted)

Silk, S-twist

Silk, S-twist

Silk

Silk, light yellow, S-twist

Weft density (Bars; marking wefts)

12; 28

8; 15-16

8; 16

-;24

12/13; 28

page 148
the weft binds with the background warp threads, the pile warp does not participate in the binding of the weft, which may be a sign of Turkish fabrics [Monnas, 2012(1), cat. no 50; Sardjono, 2006, p. 197]. The alternation of the background and pile bases in all fabrics is identical: 6 background threads and 1 pile.

The twisting of the background warp threads differs slightly; in samples 2 and 3, the thread has a strong z-twist, and the velvet from the Oriental Department (sample 1) has a weak twist (which can also serve as one of the signs of Turkish fabrics [Kullanda, 2007, p.27]).

Sample 1, in contrast to samples 2 and 3 (for samples 4 and 5 there are no data), shows an abundant use of metal weft. It lies tightly, leaving no free spaces. Hypothetically, this may indicate a different date of these velvets rather than different places of production (the fragment under study from the Oriental Department is presumably dated to the second half of the 15th century; the velvet from the Metropolitan Museum of Art has different dates: both the 15th-16th centuries (Sardjono, 2006, p. 192-203) and the 17th century). At a later time, sources note a slight drop in the quality of the fabric, and this may be due to the loose overlap of the metal weft.

There is a group of features that distinguish Turkish-made velvets from the ornately similar Italian (Western) ones. For a number of signs, it is impossible to get data, because, for example, velvet from the Oriental Department has no edge, and we can not restore the width of the fabric (we can judge its possible width by indirect parameters, such as the width of one "pointed oval" is 30 cm, two repetitions of ovals in width are 60 cm, and edges - 1-1. 5 cm on each side-presumably, the reconstructed width of the fabric was 62-63 cm). There are several characteristics of the fabric structure that coincide with the characteristics of the studied velvet (sample 1): first, velvet on satin. The plain background weave is rather evidence of Italian production [Sardjono, 2006, p. 192-203]. However, atlas 5 itself is not a guarantee of Turkish production; examples of Italian velvets on atlas are known [Monnas, 2012(1), p. 90]. Secondly, the use of 1:4 twill in areas with metal weft [Monnas, 2012(1), cat. 50; Ipek, 2002, p. 333-334]; third, the pile base does not bind to the metal weft in the pattern elements [Monnas, 2012 (1); Sardjono, 2006, p. 192-203].

An indirect feature (absent in our fabric), which should be considered only in conjunction with all the others, is the rich use of metal thread, its introduction to large areas [Kullanda, 2007, p. 27], as well as the complete overlap of lint-free areas with metal wefts [Sardjono, 2006, p. 192-203 ] - however, examples are known italian velvets of this type. An important feature of Turkish production, which, apparently, is not present in Sample 1, is the presence of binding weft in velvet fabrics with a satin background weave. The absence of binding wefts is a characteristic feature of Italian velvets, especially with a taffeta background (additional wefts are not necessary to strengthen the fabric, since taffeta itself is a strong weave). In Italian fabrics of the 15th century, in which lint-free areas are covered with metal weft, they are absent. In Turkish velvets, on the contrary, they are present even in cases where the background and pile bases are the same color, and the lint-free areas are completely covered with metal weft [Sardjono, 2006, p. 197]. But due to the poor condition of the fabric, working with it is complicated (with any manipulation, it crumbles a lot), it is impossible to examine the wrong side, because the velvet is duplicated on tulle. Therefore, it is impossible to exclude the presence of a binding duck in velvet from the Department of the East.

Depending on the presence or absence of the binding weft, the sequence of wefts in Turkish and Italian velvets also differs [Sardjono, 2006, p. 192-203]. For example, in Turkish 4 background ducks, 2 marking ones for 1 rod. In Italian, for example, without binding wefts, with a metal thread: 3 background, 2 passes of the marking duck on one bar.

page 149
The material and characteristics of threads can play an important role in attribution. One of the most striking indicators of fabric production in Turkey is the use of cotton threads in the weft of velvets, which was the norm in the XVI century (also an indicator for Iranian fabrics) [Kullanda, 2007, p. 27]. The fabric from the Oriental Department has exclusively silk wefts. Cotton in the weft is found, for example, in velvet from the Victoria and Albert Museum (V&A, inv. N 26-1895) [V&A, 326-1895]13, which ornamentally belongs to the same group with samples 2 and 3. But the latter, which is very interesting, have all the threads made of silk. That is, the use of pure silk threads cannot be considered as an attribute of exclusively Italian fabrics.

A legal document dating from 1502 on the decline in the quality of Ottoman silks compared to the earlier period (mid - second half of the 15th century) indicates various standards in the weaving technique of silk fabrics and velvets, including information on the dyeing of raw materials for velvets. It follows from the document that Kerria laced was actively used for dyeing velvet wefts - an expensive dye that was later used in smaller proportions and in combination with others, such as indigo, which reduced the cost of the finished material, but negatively affected its color [Ipek, p. 162-163]. The presence of Kerria lacca as a dye can be considered as an important attribution feature (this dye is not typical for European fabrics of the XV-XVI centuries, but was widely used in the Islamic world [Sardjono, 2006, p. 192-203]). Unfortunately, dye analysis did not show this (Table 2).
Table 2

Determination of dyes of velvet CHM-1423 (L. S. Gavrilenko, Head of the Department of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation). laboratory of Physical and Chemical methods of research of materials of the Department of Scientific and Technical Expertise of the State Hermitage Museum)

Thread name

Color (color that can be reconstructed)

Used dyes

Installed coloring components

Base 1 background

Red (red with a purple tinge)

Madder (Madder)

Alizarin
Purpurin
Mordant containing iron salts

Base 2 pile

Brown (red with a warm tinge)

Madder
Kermes (Coccus ilicis)
Mignonette or dye droc (?)

Alizarin
Purpurin
Kermesic Acid
Luteolin (?) (flavonoid class)

Weft 1

Brown-red (orange with a brown tinge)

Madder, the last bath after primary staining

Traces of alizarin
Traces of purpurin etc

Weft 2 (metal thread core)

Brown (Orange)

Mignonette or dye droc (?)
Madder

Luteolin (?)
Alizarin
Purpurin

Since the preservation of the fabric is very poor, this made it difficult to take samples. The fabric has lost its original color, so we can assume that some of the dyes from one thread could have passed to others, i.e. shed. This applies to dyes of vegetable origin: madder and mignonette (or gorse). Yellow dyes, as well as in the 15th - century fabrics from the Belorechensk burial ground (collection of the State Hermitage Museum's Department of Oriental Art), are unstable, so their determination is difficult.

13 This fabric is ornamentally similar to the velvet from Copper Hewitt CHM 1951-151-1, which has the attribution Turkey, XV-XVI centuries in the article by S. Sarjono [Sardjono, p. 193, 198.

page 150
We can't determine the exact shades of red on this fabric, but it turns out that the background and pile were different colors (this is partly noticeable now). I will also point out the use of red dyes of both vegetable and animal origin (madder and kermes) in the pile base at the same time. Kermes is a more expensive dye [Sardjono, 2006, p. 196]compared to madder. A similar situation with different colors of the warp threads can be seen in velvets from the Metropolitan Museum of Art and Cooper-Hewitt: based on the dye analyses given by S. Sarjono, in two cases out of three, the dyes of the pile and main bases differ (cochineal - madder and indigo; madder - madder with indigo).

L. Monnas points out as one of the possible signs of the Ottoman origin of the fabric the use of orange duck stained with madder [Monnas, 2012(1), p. 146, cat. 48]. In the case of velvet from the Oriental Department, it is difficult to say anything because of the poor preservation of the fabric, but the analysis showed that the weft differs in color from the base, was painted with madder, in the last bath after the primary staining, its reconstructed color is orange with a brown tint.

One of the important attributes that can help with attribution is the characteristic of a metal thread. Oriental fabrics are very different in this characteristic from European silks: Ottoman fabrics use silver and gold wire with a small amount of impurities, while Italian (more broadly, European) metal contains a significant impurity of copper [Kullanda, 2007, p. 27; Biniok, 1985, p. 241; Sardjono, 2006, p. 196, 203, table 3].

The results of the analysis of metal 14 on velvet threads from the Department of the East are very revealing - it is silver, but practically without impurities - less than 0.5% of the copper content. There are traces of gilding (it is difficult to say, due to poor preservation, whether there was gilding only on one side or on both sides of the silver strip).

Based on the analysis of the ornament, the fabric can be dated to the second half - the end of the XV century: early samples of velvets and other silk fabrics show a different organization of five - or seven-part medallions, and later time gives the development and modification of the ornament. This date is also indicated by dated analogies. A number of technological features, including a weak twist of threads in the base and weft, twill 1:4 in areas with metal marking weft and extreme purity of silver, allow us to think about the Turkish origin of velvets from the Department of the East. Signs such as the use of exclusively silk threads in the fabric (rather than cotton in the weft) and the dense overlap of metal weft support the idea of an early period of fabric production.

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