Training manual.

Moscow: Navona Publ., 2008, 160 p.

The author of the reviewed work is not just a conflict theorist, but a practical participant in the peacekeeping process, primarily the inter-Tajik dialogue. This means that it has a rich experience in correlating theoretical views on conflict situations with their practical application. Therefore, it is important to know what problems and topics I. D. Zvyagelskaya chose for her short book. Undoubtedly, there are more extensive and detailed works on this issue, for example [Ethnopolitical conflict..., 2007]. But I believe that the current flow of research literature on the problem of ethno-political conflicts already needs a qualified "thematic filter" in order to separate the main from the secondary, important for the Russian reader (mainly students) from the optional. This task is performed by the peer-reviewed monograph.

The author begins his approach with a general description of the conflict. It is quite true that the book does not provide a detailed definition of conflict. First, in many funs-

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In experimental studies, the concept of "conflict "is replaced by the synonyms" struggle"," dispute", etc. [Davydov and Osipov, 1986, pp. 152-153]. Secondly, many definitions of conflict are very evasive, for example: "Antagonism between individuals or groups in society "[Giddens, 1999, p. 667]; "Clash of opposing interests, goals, views of subjects of interaction, serious disagreements, acute dispute" [Geopolitika, 2002, p.275]. By the way, the concept of" war", which is semantically related to the concept of "conflict", is also defined not very strictly - as "an extreme form of resolving socio-political, economic, ideological, as well as national, religious, territorial and other forms of contradictions between states, peoples, nations, classes and social groups by means of military violence" [Military Encyclopedia, 2001, p. 337].

Apparently, the concept of conflict can be interpreted as a "social axiom", i.e. a basic social category that does not have and does not need to be defined due to its self-evidence. Conflict and the concepts of this semantic field are opposed to the concepts of "peace", "consent" and their synonyms, because the most authoritative theory of G. Simmel states that through the function of conflict, society comes to a new system of balanced relationships. Within the framework of this paradigm, I. D. Zvyagelskaya's book is "constructed", in which the analysis of actual conflict situations is supplemented by various ways of resolving them.

In this review, I am going to highlight some important accents that the author places when analyzing conflict situations. Thus, it emphasizes the role of the political context and the intervention of external forces for the transition of a conflict from a latent form to an open one, for its escalation or, conversely, the disappearance of the causes that gave rise to it. The point is that understanding a conflict situation requires a broader outlook than the requirements of the conflicting parties. I. D. Zvyagelskaya quite reasonably shows the difference between a conflict and a political crisis. If the first concept describes actual disagreements between the parties that do not necessarily lead to an armed confrontation, then the crisis is precisely the phase of the conflict that quickly leads to war. The crisis can pass, but the conflict will continue. At the same time, a military crisis can bring costs far greater than the benefits in the event of victory, and this can serve as a good sobering factor. The author also notes that to maintain a conflict situation "in good shape", a spontaneously or artificially formed image of an ideological opponent is necessary (pp. 10-13).

According to the researcher, ethnopolitical conflicts are "more emotional, less rational, and it is more difficult for the parties involved to find a compromise" (p. 20). This feature of ethno - political conflicts is related to the fact that they affect one of the basic aspects of human community-the need for identification, identification of oneself to one of the groups. In this regard, I. D. Zvyagelskaya adheres to the ideas of the American conflictologist J. Burton, who identified needs (basic factors for the survival of a group), interests (present social, political and economic aspirations of people and groups) and values (fundamental cultural and symbolic characteristics that distinguish groups) as conflict causes. However, in this connection, we can also recall the" pyramid of needs " of the American sociologist A. Maslow, which is based on vital needs, and the peak is the need for self-realization. Both the value and the need for self-realization included in the fabric of conflict "determine its intensity and complexity of finding a compromise" (p. 21). Therefore, it is obvious that the analysis of most modern ethno-political conflicts requires an emphasis on their symbolic component. At the same time, it is possible that future conflicts will acquire a more mundane motivation - for energy, fresh water, and other survival factors [Laurent, 2008, p.365].

The study of ethnopolitical conflicts involves reflection on the concept of "ethnicity". I. D. Zvyagelskaya defines ethnicity as "a form of social organization of cultural differences", although she mentions that "academic disputes on this issue are far from over" (p.23). This definition, of course, is not universal. Thus, the differences between Orthodox Serbs and Catholic Croats are not much greater than between the Muslim and Orthodox parts, for example, Ossetians. But in the first case, the differences are ethnic in nature, and in the case of the Ossetians, two different ethnic groups were not formed.

However, the author goes on to note that ethnicity as a means of mobilization is based on the classic "we-they" dichotomy: "as long as 'they' have the power and resources, 'they' will pursue politics at our expense "(p.25; this is the opinion of one of the parties to the conflict). In my opinion, this binary opposition " ... is a general algorithm of social life that allows you to use the following methods:-

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to achieve maximum stability of the social system at the minimum intellectual and psychological costs" [Perepelkin, 1999, p. 365]. In other words, outward-facing aggression promotes social group cohesion. Ethnocentrism, which places its group in the center of the universe, nationalism and other psychological aspects of interethnic conflicts find their origins here.

Regarding nationalism, I. D. Zvyagelskaya quite rightly writes that it is a product of an industrial society associated with the homogenization of culture as a result of a single market of goods, information and knowledge (a single school; geographical maps that present a common territory; museums that tell about a common past; general literature in the national language, etc.). classical studies of English anthropologists E. Gellner and B. Anderson on nationalism and the formation of nations are adapted (Gellner, 1991; Anderson, 2001). In its extreme forms, as the researcher writes, nationalism "leads to an underestimation or denial of moral standards, when ethnic cleansing, genocide, etc. can become acceptable to society" (p. 31). Therefore, it is important to know which elite groups promote nationalism, what their goals and methods of struggle are.

In addition to the ethnic factor, the author singles out the religious factor as the other most important modern factor of political mobilization. And first of all, it turns to Islam, which is currently characterized by the greatest political activism. Perhaps this is due to the fact that with regard to Islam, where there are no clear boundaries between religion and other spheres of life, it is impossible to talk about secularization. Perhaps there are other reasons why the borders of the "Islamic world" are currently zones of conflict based on religious grounds or with the participation of religious motivation.

Describing the typology of ethno-political conflicts according to the criterion of declared goals, the researcher quite rightly asserts that "this scheme does not reflect all the diversity" (p.42). The following causes of conflicts are identified: separatism, irredentism, disputes about administrative status, border disputes, socio-political disputes (questions about power and distribution of benefits). It is possible, however, to single out such causes of conflicts as tribalism (the question of the position of tribes in modern society) [Meliksetova, 1985] and the "Malthusian-type" conflict. An example of the latter is the clash between Tutsi and Hutu peoples in Rwanda and neighboring countries. It was caused not only by the historical enmity between these two groups, but also by purely "Malthusian" reasons - a sharp increase in the population in the context of economic stagnation [Diamond, 2008]. I. D. Zvyagelskaya examines all the identified types of ethno-political conflicts in sufficient detail. In my opinion, we should pay attention to two of her comments. First, the fact that the elites who organize and direct conflict rarely think about the consequences and the principle of responsibility. Secondly, foreign intervention in the conflict, including for the purpose of appeasement, is not always adequate and objective.

In a significant number of cases, one of the parties to an ethno-political conflict is the state. However, since most of these conflicts take place within the framework of a single State, non - State actors-independent military groups, illegal armed formations-also participate in them. Here we should make an important remark that "in fact, the process of de-sovereignization of the state is underway in terms of the gradual loss of its monopoly on the legitimate use of military force" (p.47). The state criterion proposed by Max Weber ceases to apply. The presence of numerous non-State actors participating in conflict interactions is typical of the so-called failed states, where "the population is forced to arm itself to ensure its own security" (p.48). I would like to add another type of non - State actors: mercenaries and private security structures, which often perform certain work in a conflict zone (for example, in modern Iraq) for a fee.

A special type of conflict interaction is terrorism, which is usually defined as the use of force or the threat of using force to achieve certain political goals. I. D. Zvyagelskaya figuratively writes that "terrorism as a political phenomenon appeared together with dynamite and telegraph" (p. 52). Dynamite can ensure the anonymity of the damage caused, and the telegraph allows you to widely report on the activities of terrorists. By the way, "telegraph" is more important than "dynamite": for example, it is known that people consider terrorism as a greater threat to themselves than a car accident, although getting into the latter is much more likely than becoming a victim of a terrorist act.

The author separates terrorism and guerrilla warfare. Indeed, guerrilla theorists have viewed terrorism as extreme (Che Guevara, 1998). Guerrilla warfare

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most often it is deployed in the occupied territory and is directed against the military and civilian administration of the enemy, while terrorism is primarily aimed at the civilian population. However, it is not always possible to draw a clear line between terrorism and guerrilla warfare. I. D. Zvyagelskaya notes that not all organizations that use terrorist methods focus exclusively on terrorism. They are often multifunctional. Highlighting a number of motivated forms of terrorism, the author emphasizes the danger of suicidal terrorism, which "brought 4 times more victims than other forms of terrorism, and 70% of all suicide attacks were committed already in the XXI century" (p. 57). In other words, it is still flowers, and the berries will be ahead.

The literature on terrorism rarely mentions the role of special services in creating terrorist groups for tactical gain. It is assumed that the Israeli intelligence services helped establish Hamas as an alternative to the PLO. It is known that the Mujahideen Islamists in Afghanistan, who fought against the Soviet troops, were supported by Saudi Arabia, Pakistan and the United States. The genie was released from the bottle, and the organization of the September 11 terrorist attack was only a matter of time. But it seems that politicians are poorly trained. In 1998, when Islamic terrorism was on the rise, a French newspaper asked Zbigniew Brzezinski if he regretted the covert CIA operation that led to Soviet troops entering Afghanistan. The answer was: "Regret what? The covert operation was an excellent idea. As a result of its implementation, the Russians fell into an Afghan trap, and you want me to regret it?" [Gracheva, 2004, p. 355]. This is the case when the drug kills more surely than the disease.

I. D. Zvyagelskaya begins the part of the book devoted to conflict resolution with an analysis of terminology. The following terms are used in the study of the entire process: conflict resolution, i.e. elimination of the causes that gave rise to it; conflict resolution, i.e. search for acceptable compromises for the parties and measures to rehabilitate society; conflict management - reducing the level of tension, de-escalation; termination of the conflict - completion of the active phase of the confrontation with the possible conclusion of an agreement on disputed issues. These concepts reflect different states of the ethno-political conflict, which is on the decline as a result of certain mediation efforts.

Further, the author tells the reader about the content of the settlement process, as it was developed within the framework of the UN and other international organizations. The general concept here is peacemaking, i.e. actions aimed at persuading the conflicting parties to an agreement, mainly using peaceful means. Peacemaking involves the introduction of special UN contingents to separate the parties to a conflict, but also other means, including preventive diplomacy, i.e. mediation that prevents disputes from escalating into conflicts. Peacekeeping operations associated with various stages of conflict can perform the following tasks: peacemaking itself, peacekeeping , imposing peace, and peace-building. I. D. Zvyagelskaya describes peacemaking in sufficient detail, referring to international legal norms and specific examples.

Another form of international engagement in a conflict situation may be humanitarian intervention. It is held to save people's lives in those countries where large-scale violence is carried out, especially by the State. However, as the author notes, "humanitarian intervention still remains a very controversial tool in world politics, since it involves violating the principle of sovereignty... There is still no general understanding of what human rights violations can justify military intervention " (p. 68).

Humanitarian intervention requires a UN Security Council mandate. And how to describe, for example, the military operation of the United States and its allies in Iraq in 2003 and subsequent years? After all, first they talked about the threat from Iraq, and then about the humanitarian mission. The mandate for this operation was not received. This example shows that the line between a humanitarian operation and aggression can be very thin, as well as the line between a humanitarian operation and repelling aggression, as evidenced by the events in South Ossetia in August 2008. An important point made by the author: humanitarian operations may not be conducted in regions of conflict, but "not of strategic interest to the leading countries of the international community" (p. 70). It turns out that from the point of view of current international relations, people's lives are ranked. On the other hand, international organizations such as the United Nations cannot physically bear full responsibility for resolving all existing ethno-political conflicts in the world, also because in recent decades they have been pushed to the sidelines of the global political process by the efforts of the United States.

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I. D. Zvyagelskaya tells about the adopted format of peacekeeping under the auspices of the UN in sufficient detail. But there is another, additional peacemaking process - the public one, which the author knows firsthand. This process is sometimes referred to as" parallel diplomacy", and it can be considered the most striking and positive manifestation of civil society. The book tells the story of the emergence of this "people's diplomacy" and its basic principles, as well as the stages of the dialogue. This experience is particularly interesting because it is based on the example of the inter-Tajik dialogue, which contributed to ending the civil war in Tajikistan.

The book under review is rich in examples for almost every thesis put forward by the author. Without complaining, the author gave three detailed examples of ethno-political conflicts: the separatist conflict (Chechnya), the irredentist conflict (Nagorno-Karabakh), and the power struggle between regional clans (Tajikistan). The reader has the opportunity to check the theoretical calculations by following the description of these three conflict situations. But to paraphrase Leo Tolstoy, " all conflicts are terrible in their own way." No one, including the author of a peer-reviewed paper, can give precise prescriptions for future conflict situations. We can only learn from the experience of the past, generalizing it creatively. I. D. Zvyagelskaya's book provides a good opportunity for this.

list of literature

Anderson B. Imaginary communities. Reflections on the origins and spread of nationalism, Moscow, 2001.
Military Encyclopedia / Edited by A. P. Gorkin, Moscow, 2002.

Gellner E. Nations and Nationalism, Moscow, 1991.
Geopolitics / Edited by V. L. Manilov, Moscow, 2002.

Gidzens E. Sotsiologiya [Sociology], Moscow, 1999.

Gracheva T. V. Comprehension of war: mutiny as a state of mind, purpose and method of fighting // Messner E. E. World Mutiny war. Zhukovsky-Moscow, 2004.

Davydov Yu. N., Osipov G. V. Spravochnoe posobie po istorii nemarksistskoy zapadnoy sotsiologii [Reference manual on the history of Non-Marxist Western Sociology]. Moscow, 1986.

Diamond J. Collapse. Why some societies survive and others die. Moscow, 2008.

Laurent E. Oil: lies, secrets, machinations, Moscow, 2008.
Meliksetova I. M. Tribalism and statehood (ethnosocial and socio-political processes in Papua New Guinea in the 60-80s of the XX century). Moscow, 1985.

Perepelkin L. S. Problema sotsial'nykh granitei v sisteme sotsial'nogo znaniya [The problem of social borders in the system of social knowledge]. Ocherki iz istorii kul'tury Merraniternya [Essays from the History of Mediterranean Culture].

Che Guevara E. Partizanskaya voina [Guerrilla Warfare], Moscow, 1998.
Ethnopolitical conflict: ways of transformation. Berghof Center Reference Book / Edited by V. A. Tishkov and M. Ya. Ustinova, Moscow, 2007.

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