One of the largest states formed as part of the Mongol Empire of the Genghisids, created during the large-scale conquests of the Mongols in the XIII century, was the Ulus of Jochi, or the Golden Horde. For three centuries, during the periods of the developed and late Middle Ages, many peoples and ethnic groups that were different in their origin, cultural and economic affiliation, level of socio-economic development, language and religious affiliation were united within this state. In recent decades, the study of various aspects of historical and cultural development, ethno-cultural interaction and mutual influence of different peoples and cultures during the existence of the Golden Horde has been given considerable attention by scientists from various scientific centers of Russia, including Tatarstan and Bashkortostan, from other CIS countries and some European countries. An important area of this research is the organization of periodic international conferences devoted to the analysis of the results of scientific research in the field of history and culture of the Golden Horde.

In March 2009, the Sh. Marjani Institute of History of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan and the Center for Research of the Golden Horde Civilization in Kazan held an International scientific Conference " Political and socio-economic history of the Golden Horde (XIII-XV centuries)". This scientific forum was attended by leading experts in the field of studying the history and culture of the Golden Horde and other medieval states of Eurasia, as well as young scientists from Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan, Ufa, Nizhny Novgorod, Novosibirsk, Chelyabinsk and other scientific centers of the Russian Federation, researchers from Turkey, Egypt, France, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Ukraine.

The plenary session of the conference was opened by the Director of the Institute of History of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan R. S. Khakimov, who addressed the audience with a welcoming speech and wished successful work to the participants of this scientific meeting.

M. A. Usmanov (Institute of History of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan) made a report on the most pressing problems of historiography and source studies of the history of the Dzhuchiev Ulus. He noted the difficulties faced in the past by historians of Tatarstan who turned to the study of the history of the Golden Horde. The speaker stressed the need to objectively cover historical events related to the past of the Tatar and other peoples. According to the speaker, the Golden Horde was an ordinary medieval empire for its time.

The report of V. V. Trepavlov (IRI RAS, Moscow)" Jochi Ulus in the XV-XVI centuries: inertia of unity " was devoted to the analysis of events in the last period of the existence of this state. According to the speaker, Russian historiography plays a significant role in shaping the" historical reputation " of the Golden Horde as one of the major medieval states of Eurasia. The report analyzes information about some of the rulers of various administrative and state entities in the Golden Horde. In the considered historical period, according to the author's assessment, despite the increased disintegration of the Golden Horde statehood, a certain inertia remained - a relic of a single state. Its division into wings during this period is not always traced. The degradation of the unified statehood in the Golden Horde, according to the speaker, was associated with the loss of charisma of the "Golden Family" of the Genghisids. In the struggle for power, applicants who did not come from this family put forward fake khans from among the native descendants of Genghis Khan. To the number of disintegrate-

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Among the main factors that determined the collapse of the Golden Horde, the speaker attributed the lack of religious unity of the entire population and a single ethnic group, as well as the loss of authority by the ruling "Golden Family".

The report of G. F. Valeeva-Suleymanova (Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan) spoke about the development of art in the Golden Horde, which was part of the Islamic civilization. The speaker noted the peculiarities of the established traditions and schools within the framework of Islamic art and highlighted the characteristic features of the Turkic-Tatar art, which was developed in the Golden Horde, mainly in the urban centers of Bulgar and Khorezm. The speaker considers syncretism of artistic activity in nomadic and urban environments to be a special feature of the Golden Horde art. At the same time, the Golden Horde art had an imperial character. The report analyzed various items of toreutics: gold jewelry with inserts of colored stones, details of typesetting belts, cups and buckets richly decorated with various ornaments, as well as ornate horn linings of quivers.

H. Alan (Mimar Sinana University, Istanbul, Turkey) devoted her presentation to the analysis of the formalization of supreme power in the Golden Horde and the emergence of the Karachi Bey institute. In her opinion, during the formation of the Golden Horde and other Genghisid states, the Turkic-Uyghur influence prevailed. In particular, the" decimal system " of dividing the army and the people, according to X. Alan, was introduced by Genghis Khan as a counterbalance to the tribal organization. At the same time, it did not take into account historical evidence, according to which this system was used even among the Huns, and received its final design during the existence of the Zhuzhan state.

The report of V. A. Ivanov (Bash. GPU) was devoted to the reflection of the social stratification of the nomads of the Golden Horde in archaeological materials. The author of the report identified local groups of funerary monuments in different regions of the Volga region and the Urals, which, in his opinion, are comparable to different ulus of the Golden Horde. According to these seven local groups, burials of Nuker horsemen and women are identified, which are compared with a certain social stratum of the nomadic population, as well as horseless military burials, which are correlated with another social group of the Golden Horde nomads.

M. Favero (French Institute of Oriental Archaeology, Paris) provided the results of studying sources that cover the events of the time of the alliance of the Golden Horde with the Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt. The report traces diplomatic contacts between these States. Most of the Mamluks came from the Kipchaks and Circassians who were captured and sold to Egypt. At the same time, the main military force of the Golden Horde was composed of nomadic Kipchaks. In Egyptian sources, the Hulaguid state was evaluated negatively, while the Golden Horde was evaluated positively. According to Egyptian Muslims, the Golden Horde was part of the Muslim world: the Ummah and Dar-ul-Islam.

A. Kushkumbayev (Kokshetau University, Kazakhstan) considered the features of the management and structure of the military organization of the Jochi Ulus, divided into two wings: Ak-Ordu and Kok-Ordu. In his opinion, this dual structure did not copy the social hierarchy. In historiography, there is a certain discrepancy in the name of the eastern wing of the Golden Horde. The state of Jochi, according to the speaker, was founded in 1207, while it was divided into two wings only in 1227. The White Horde was formed by Batukhan even before the western campaign. His headquarters were located on the Syr Darya River, where, according to legend, the legendary "throne of Sain Khan" should be located in Southern Kazakhstan.

In the future, the conference was held simultaneously in four sections. The author of this report was able to participate in two of them.

The section "Questions of the Political history of the Golden Horde"was opened with a report by Yu. S. Khudyakov (IAET SB RAS, Novosibirsk), devoted to the analysis of cultural materials of the population of the Jochi Ulus in Western Siberia. He considered the main problems of studying medieval settlements and ancient settlements, funerary monuments and elements of the subject complex. During the discussion of the report, the speakers noted new finds of medieval coins on the square of the Isker settlement and discussed the possibilities of ethnic identification of medieval graves with a northern orientation.

The report of I. L. Izmailov (Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan) contained an analysis of information about the situation of Volga Bulgaria as part of the Jochi Ulus in the second half of the XIII century. Was it an autonomous entity or part of the Khan's ulus? Having considered the contents of the life of Fyodor Yaroslavsky, the speaker came to the conclusion that the information about the Bulgarian princes receiving labels for the administration of Volga Bulgaria is an anachronism.

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In the speeches of the Russian Federation. Nabieva and A. A. Khaydarova (Kazan Jurid. in-t of the Ministry of Internal Affairs), the place and date of the historical event itself, known as the Battle of Kulikovo, were questioned. During the discussion, the insufficiently substantiated assumptions made by Kazan lawyers about this battle were criticized by the historian I. L. Izmailov.

V. P. Kostyukov (Chelyabinsk GPU) gave one of the versions of the legend about the conversion of the Uzbek Khan to Islam. It was based on information about the spread of other proselytizing religions in the Golden Horde, in particular Buddhism. According to him, the Buddhist was Khan Tokhta, as well as some rulers in the Ilkhanov state. According to the speaker, I. Schiltberger's essay describes the Uyghurs in Siberia as Buddhists, and not as Christians, as the Bavarian Landsknecht claimed. He also noted that the Khan of Uzbekistan was confirmed on the Golden Horde throne by the great Khan Buyanta. All this information, according to the speaker, should indicate a greater religious tolerance of the rulers of the Golden Horde than previously thought.

K. M. Aliyev (newspaper" Eldash", Makhachkala) spoke about the influence of the Golden Horde on the development of ethnic groups and cultures of the Caucasus. In his opinion, almost all the ancestors of the ruling clans of the Avars, Balkars, Kabardins, Kumyks and other peoples of the North Caucasus are descended from the Genghisids.

Yu. V. Sochneva (Nizhnenovgorodsky phil. SU-HSE) described the main stages of the policy of the Golden Horde Khans towards the Russian Orthodox Church. He sees this policy as forced cooperation. The speaker also noted that the khans granted various privileges to the clergy. This is evidenced by the decrees of the great khans of Guyuk and Mongke, the Golden Horde khans of Batu, Berke, and Mengu-Timur.

R.N. Rakhimov (Bash. GU, Ufa) in his report "Traditions of the Golden Horde in the military affairs of the Bashkirs of the XVII-XVIII centuries" presented extensive material that reflects the features of weapons, military organization and military art of the Bashkirs in the period after joining the Russian state. According to the speaker, the Bashkir military tradition was largely based on the Golden Horde military tradition. This was reflected in the organization of the army according to the decimal principle, the use of traditional cold weapons and means of protection: bows and arrows, sabers, helmets and mail, as well as in the tactics of a loose formation. Among the Bashkir soldiers were professional fighters and military leaders: batyrs and tarkhans. However, Bashkir soldiers also used firearms on the battlefield - Turkish rifles. Military detachments of Bashkirs took part in the Northern and Seven Years ' Wars in the Baltic States, Poland, Prussia and Finland. According to a contemporary of the events, Archengolz, who left his notes on this occasion, they used real scorched-earth tactics, burning entire villages and destroying residents in places of military operations. This report aroused great interest and many questions from those present. E. Kalan (Pamukkale University, Denizli, Turkey)reported on the impact of the policies of the Golden Horde rulers and the Ilkhans on the development of trade and economic relations in the Middle East. I. M. Mirgaleev's speech (Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan) included an assessment of new priorities in relations between the Genghisid states after the death of Ogedei Khan. According to the speaker, the main armed forces of the Mongol Empire at that time were under the command of Batu Khan, whose opponent was Guyuk. However, the Jochids did not want to return to Mongolia. This led to the struggle for the throne of the great khan. L. F. Abzalov (Buinsk branch of the Academy of Social Education, Buinsk) made a report on the peculiarities of clerical service in the state apparatus of the Jochi Ulus.

At the section "Culture of the Golden Horde", several interesting reports were made on various aspects of studying the culture and art of the medieval population of the Volga region, the Southern Urals and the Crimea. The presentation of R. R. Yamilova (Bash. GPU, Ufa) contained an analysis of the semantics of zoomorphic images on fabrics and attributes of female costume of the population of the Golden Horde. Special attention was paid to the analysis of images on the silver plate that decorated the Mongolian female headdress-bokka. The speaker noted the importance of the image of the dragon in the decorative and applied arts of the population of the Golden Horde. E. R. Davletshina (AI of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan) devoted her report to the analysis of the image of the bird on the products made of irrigation ceramics found on the monuments of the Golden Horde. The objects of study were several ceramic bowls from the Bulgar Reserve, Saray-Berke and Saraychik. A. N. Prudnikova (State Museum of the Republic of Tatarstan) spoke about the artistic, compositional and other features of the ribbon ornament on stone Muslim tombstones studied at the monuments of the Crimea

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and Volga Bulgaria, dating back to the Golden Horde era. 710's speech aroused great interest among the conference participants. Piskun (club "Sharukhan", Kharkiv), in which he informed about the activities of this club in the field of historical reconstruction of offensive and defensive weapons complexes, men's and women's costumes, horse harness of the nomadic Kipchak population of the steppes of Eastern Europe of the XIII-XIV centuries, which, in his opinion, belonged to the left wing of the Juchi Ulus - "Ak-Orde". This presentation significantly enlivened the meeting itself and the exchange of views among the conference participants who attended this section.

At the final plenary session, the speakers emphasized the importance of holding this conference, the possibility of a fruitful exchange of views and the latest scientific information on topical issues of studying the history and culture of the Golden Horde and neighboring states of Eurasia. Participants who came to the conference from other regions of Russia and foreign countries noted the efforts of the organizers, who, despite all the difficulties associated with the global economic crisis, were able to prepare and hold this conference at a high scientific and organizational level.

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