Despite the well-known imperative alcohol prohibition in Islam, in their everyday lives, throughout many places and times, Muslims have been drinking alcohols. In this research, the religious prohibition and its practices are discussed in the context of the bicentennial history of Dagestan (until the final annexation by the Russian Empire). The article draws upon religious prescriptions in the works of the Shaf'i (al-Nawawi and others) and Hanaf (al-Samarqandi and others) jurists, comparing them with evidences described and analyzed by scholars, foreign travelers (Adam Olearius, Evliya Celebi, J.A. Guldenstadt etc.), as well as local theological, legal and history works in Arabic language.

Key words: Dagestan, alcohol in Islam, Shaf'i, Khanaf, khamr, nabidh, al-Quduqi, al-'Aymaki.

It is known that the Arabs of the "Jahiliya" era knew about the methods of producing alcoholic beverages and liked to use them. This is evidenced by the relevant verses

The study was supported by the Russian State Science Foundation grant 15-01-00389.

The author thanks M. G. Shekhmagomedov for his advice on Muslim law.

Musaev M. Ban on alcohol consumption in Islam: Religious imperatives and practice on the example of Dagestan of the XVII-first half of the XIX centuries.Gosudarstvo, religiya, tserkva v Rossii i za rubezhom [State, Religion, Church in Russia and Abroad]. 2016. N4. pp. 92-117.

Musaev, Makhach A. (2016) "The Prohibition of Alcohol in Islam: Religious Imperatives and Practices in the 17th-19th Century Dagestan", Gosudarstvo, religiia, tserkov' v Rossii i za rubezhom 34(4): 92-117.

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Qur'an, hadiths, South Arabic, Palmyra, Nabataean inscriptions, pre-Islamic Arabic poetry, written information, etc. Ibn Sida 1 (d. 1066) in his" al-Muhassas "gives about a hundred Arabic synonyms for the term" wine", in the" Wine List " of al-Firuzabadi (d. 1415) there are 357 of them. The variety of nomenclature of names indicates that alcohol was part of the daily life and culture of the Arabs. They drank not only wine (hamr) - a derivative of grapes and dates, but also other alcoholic beverages-products of fermentation of honey, fruits, cereals, dried fruits and dried fruits (mizr, bit', gubayra ' and many others) 2.

At first, Islam did not prohibit the use of alcohol. In one of the earliest surahs of the Qur'an, wine (hamr) is mentioned in a "positive" context, as one of the drinks promised to the God-fearing in Paradise (Qur'an 47:15; in the interpretation of this verse, it is noted that the "hamr" of Paradise is not "hamr" that can be found on Earth, and from its use, people are not allowed to drink it. does not get drunk and does not lose his mind), and as one of the signs of Allah's mercy to mankind (Quran 16: 67). It is clear from the hadiths that Hamza, the Prophet's uncle, and another companion, Anas ibn Malik al-Khazraji, were intoxicated at least once. One of the sacred traditions contains information that some warriors for the faith consumed alcohol before the battle of Uhud (Sahih al-Bukhari: Kitab fard al-hummus; Sahih al-Bukhari: Kitab al-jihad; Sahih Muslim: Kitab al-ashriba; etc.). Similar information can be found in tafsirs, such as at-Tabari. His work mentions the mistakes of some of the first Muslims in ritual prayer caused by a state of intoxication.3
Later, the situation changed. The beneficial properties of wine were overshadowed by the evil deeds committed by those who were intoxicated. The use of "hamr" has become forbidden (Qur'an 2:219; 4:43; 5:90-91). The fact that there was no ban initially is not surprising: the Muslim community received certain concepts and guidelines for action in stages and as needed.

1. Simplified transcription is used here and further in the transmission of Arabic terms, toponyms and anthroponyms.

2. Maraqten, M. (1993) "Wine Drinking and Wine Prohibition in Arabia before Islam", Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies 23: 95-96; Waines, D. (2011) Food Culture and Health in Pre-Modern Muslim Societies, p. XIII. Leiden, Boston: Brill.

3. Wensinck, A.J. (1997) "Khamr", in The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume IV, p. 994. Leiden: E.J. Brill.

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After the Prophet's death, Hejazic jurists concluded that all alcoholic beverages should be prohibited (haram). Later, Shafi'i, Maliki, and Hanbali scholars, as well as their Shia counterparts, confirmed this view. At the same time, each of the legal schools used its own methods to make such a decision, and the sources for them were the interpretation of verses of the Koran and hadith. Arabic verb "hamara" (meaning "to cover up", "to hide") it was raised to the same root as the term "hamr" (wine) - the only kind of intoxicating substance mentioned in the Qur'an. Muslim jurists and philologists, using the principle of analogy, have determined that "hamr" is something that "overshadows" the mind and feelings. Accordingly, "hamr" should be understood not only as the fermented juice of grapes and dates, but also any substance that leads to intoxication and can dull the mind and senses. The hadith from Sahih al-Bukhari, " Hamr is that which overshadows the mind "(Sahih al-Bukhari: Kitab al-ashriba) confirmed the conclusion of experts. Thus, in their opinion, any other substance - for example, "nabiz" (for more details, see below) - that affects a person in the same way as wine, is "hamr". "Hamr" has become an umbrella term for all alcoholic beverages. This explains why many translators of Arabic sacred texts render "hamr "as" alcoholic drink "or"intoxicant".

However, not all theologians agreed with this interpretation. The Mu'tazilite Muhammad al-Jubba'i (d. 915-916) had his own argument in favor of the permissibility of using "nabiz". He believed that Allah created certain things that resemble those that are allowed in Paradise, but are forbidden on earth. Among them is nabiz, the use of which is not prohibited - so that believers can understand what the wine (hamr) will be like in Paradise 4. As a Basrian, al-Jubba'i partly followed the lawyers of earlier centuries from his native city and Kufa, who were not in favor of a total ban on alcohol. They concluded that only certain types of intoxicating beverages that are clearly identified in the Qur'an and Hadith are prohibited, while others are allowed to be consumed. The most recognizable of these is the eponym of the Hanafi madhhab Abu Hanifa (d. 767).

Proponents of this view have argued in favor of allowing some alcoholic beverages. Vo-per-

4. Heine, P. (1993) "Nabidh", in The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume VII, p. 840. Leiden, New York: E.J. Brill.

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In contrast to the representatives of other madhhabs, many Hanafis understood the term "Hamr" only as it was intended. In their opinion, the application of the term "hamr" to all substances that have the ability to cause intoxication is incorrect, and therefore drinks such as "nabiz" should not be included in the category of "hamr". Secondly, those who opposed the prohibition of all alcoholic beverages considered some of the hadiths cited by their opponents to be abrogated (mansuh)or misinterpreted. 5
"Nabiz" is a generic name for alcoholic beverages of various types produced by fermentation: for example, " mizr "( from barley), "bit' "(from honey), " fadih "(from different varieties of dates). Such drinks could be made from a mixture of different ingredients (raisins, dates, and honey), and sometimes included St. John's wort or cannabis, which in addition to the intoxicating effect gave a hallucinogenic effect. There are quite a few hadiths about nabiz. Not all of them explicitly prohibit it, which gave rise to some theologians and jurists to allow the use of nabiz or not to prevent it. For example, in one of the hadiths there is a direct ban on drinking nabiz cooked in a gourd or jug smeared with "tar" on the inside, but the Prophet did not directly indicate the prohibition of other types of nabiz. Another sacred tradition tells of intoxication from the drink "halitain", made from two different varieties of dates. The Prophet forbade this drink on the spot (although the hadith says nothing about the punishment). However, many Hanafis have deduced from this report that the Prophet's special prohibition on excessive consumption of this type of alcoholic beverage only indicates that there is no general prohibition on intoxicating beverages.

The Hanafis were the first to argue that texts prohibiting Hamr should be interpreted in a broader context. It was important to them that nabiz was a common drink in Madinah during the time of the Prophet. According to their recitation, prominent companions such as ' Umar and Abu Dharr continued to drink nabiz after the Prophet's death. In addition, the famous companion (ashab), the jurist Ibn Mas'ud, while in Kufa, as co-

5. Long, M. (2014) "Alcohol, Drugs, and Earthly "Annihilation", in J.A. Morrow (ed.) Islamic Images and Ideas: Essays on Sacred Symbolism, pp. 80-81. McFarland & Company.

6. Heine, P. "Nabidh", p. 840; Maraqten, M. "Wine Drinking and Wine Prohibition in Arabia before Islam", pp. 98-99.

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communicates, expressed the opinion that this drink is legal, although he did not use it himself. Many lawyers in Iraq followed suit and argued that the ban on Hamr did not apply to Nabiz 7.

It should be clearly noted that Abu Hanifa did not deny the standard view that "hamr" and intoxication are unacceptable, that it is "haram". Hanafis agree on this issue with representatives of all madhhabs, and the fundamental difference in the opinion of some Hanafis is that it is not the drinks themselves that are prohibited, but the effects of drinks, that is, intoxication. At the same time, there were authoritative scholars among the Hanafis - such as Abu Hanifa's disciple Muhammad al-Shaybani (d. 804-805) - who held the opinion of banning alcohol.

The next important aspect: what is considered intoxication? Each law school expressed its opinion on this issue. From the point of view of Abu Hanifa, intoxication is the state of a person when " his mind has left him, and he does not understand (does not distinguish) neither small nor large"8. It should be noted that in all madhhabs there is a penalty of 9 for drinking alcoholic beverages or being intoxicated.

Thus, according to the three Sunni madhhabs, any intoxicant is prohibited, even in small quantities. The same opinion is shared by Shiite theologians. According to Sharia law, wine and other types of alcohol are evil spirits ("najis"), their use is forbidden ("haram"), but they do not take a Muslim out of Islam: he does not become an infidel ("kafir"), but is considered a wicked person ("fasik"). Hanafi texts (although not all of them), in particular the early ones, allow the consumption of alcoholic beverages that are not explicitly prohibited under certain circumstances, but not in intoxicating doses10.

7. Rabb, I.A. (2015) Doubt in Islamic Law. A History of Legal Maxims, Interpretation, and Islamic Criminal Law, pp. 145-147. Cambridge University Press.

8. Long, M. "Alcohol, Drugs, and Earthly "Annihilation", p. 83. The Dagestani scholar-theologian Muhammad al-Quduqi has one of the definitions of intoxication according to the Hanafi madhhab: "A condition where a person cannot distinguish between a man and a woman and heaven and earth."

9. From 20 to 80 blows of varying intensity with a whip or stick, depending on the madhhab, legal status and state of health of the person being punished.

10. The position of Hanafi scholars on alcohol consumption has been converging with that of other madhhabs over time.

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However ," despite the prohibition of the Qur'an, drinking wine was widespread at that time." So writes the famous Swiss orientalist Adam Metz, describing the daily life of Muslims of the III-IV centuries of the Hijra (IX-X centuries AD) and giving many examples, and concerning representatives of all walks of life. According to al-Muqaddasi, in Old Cairo, even respectable people (masha'im) did not refuse wine. The vizier of Baghdad, al-Muhallabi, drank with the local Qadis, and with the participation of the supreme Qadi. Used alcoholic beverages and caliphs 11. It is believed that members of the upper classes drank out of a sense of superiority, enjoying alcohol as one of the privileges granted to the elite (hass) in Islamic countries. Abstinence was imposed on commoners (abv) who were unable to control themselves 12.

A little later, at the turn of the X-XI centuries, Ibrahim ar-Raqiq al-Qayrawani (Tunis) wrote an essay on wine 13. His follower was the Egyptian Muhammad ibn 'Uthman al-Imam al-Nawaghi (d. 1455), who was seriously criticized for writing "free" content, but was not executed or even forced to go into hiding - he simply changed the title of the work, making it less provocative. 14 If drinking wine makes a Muslim "wicked "(fasik), then calling him to drink contradicts Islamic dogmas and leads to "kufr", that is, disbelief. Therefore, he could very well be severely punished.

The above historical examples may be misleading. The drinking of wine (as well as its production, trade in it, etc.), in accordance with the norms of Sharia, of course, was prohibited at the religious and state level, and was also frowned upon by society. This is evidenced by the authors referred to above. The caliphs struggled with their weaknesses as well as with drinking wine in general, and a contemporary fatwa was issued regarding the work of an-Nawaghi, which is barely long enough.

11. Metz A. Muslim Renaissance, ed. 2 / translated from German by D. E. Bertels, edited by V. I. Belyaev, Moscow: Main Editorial Office of Eastern Literature, ed. Nauka Publ., 1973, p. 319.

12. Matthee, R. (2014) "Alcohol in the Islamic Middle East: Ambivalence and Ambiguity", Past and Present 222, Supplement 9 (Cultures of Intoxication): 104.

13. Maraqten, M. "Wine Drinking and Wine Prohibition in Arabia before Islam", p. 95.

14. Van Gelder, G.J. (1995) "A muslim Encomium on Wine: "The Racecourse of the Bay (Halbat al-Kumayt)" by al-Nawāgī (d. 859/1455) as a Post-Classical Arabic Work", Arabica 42(2): 225.

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li does not exceed the essay itself 15. Isolated examples of works dedicated to wine do not go to any comparison with thousands of others in which wine drinking was prohibited.

Regional specifics should also be noted. In the Hijaz, for example, drinking wine was punished, "whereas in Mesopotamia there was nothing wrong with it."16 In the Ottoman Empire, the successor to Sunni orthodoxy, the Qur'anic ban was carefully observed, and the annals of its history are full of reports of persecution of those who dared to consume forbidden beverages. At the same time, as a multi-ethnic empire, it absorbed numerous non-religious communities, whose representatives widely used these drinks. Among the residents of one city or even one block, there could be both those for whom the use of alcohol was forbidden, and those for whom it was quite legal 17.

As for Dagestan, the history of daily life of its population is practically not studied, and this applies, in particular, to the consumption of alcoholic beverages. Written sources and artefacts on this subject are scarce, but they do exist. During excavations in Derbent, fragments and whole copies of stone and ceramic grape presses dating from the XI - beginning of the XIII century were revealed. 18 The will of the Khunzakh nutsal 'Andunik, written by "vizier Qadi 'Ali Mirza of Andi during the meeting of the lords on the Andi Mountain in the year 890 AH (1485)", mentions grapes that were cultivated in the Khunzakh region. in the territory it manages 19. Georgian Metropolitan Kirill, who visited the Moscow State with the embassy, reported that " on Boynak... and there are plenty of grapes, arable land, and forest"20. Boynak belonged to the Shamkhal's possessions, and the chief Qadi of his state,' Ali al-Baghdadi (became Qadi not later-

15. Ibid.

16. Metz A. Muslim Renaissance, p. 320.

17. Georgeon, F. (2002) "Ottomans and Drinkers: The Consumption of Alcohol in Istanbul of the Nineteenth century", in E. Rogan (ed.) Outside In: Marginality in the Modern Middle East, p. 7. I.B. Tauris and Co. Ltd.

18. Unpublished materials. Oral information of the head. M. S. Gadzhieva, Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor, Department of Archeology of the Institute of Archaeology and History of the National Research Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

19. Khashaev H.-M. Public order of Dagestan in the XIX century. Makhachkala, 1967. p. 135.

20. Russia's relations with the Caucasus. Materials extracted from the Moscow Main Archive of Foreign Affairs by Sergey Al. Belokurov. Issue 1. 1578-1613. Saint Petersburg: Universitetskaya tipografiya Publ., 1889, p. 401.

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in 1635, he died in 1655)21 in a poetic form, he accused the addressee "that he allows people to commit illegal acts" - to drink alcoholic beverages and smoke 22. Therefore, we can assume that grapes were grown not only as a berry, but also as a starting product for the production of alcoholic beverages. The European traveller Adam Olearius, who visited Tarki in 1638, wrote:: "Their drinking vessels were made up of long cow horns, from which they drank a drink called Braga, 23 which was distilled from millet and resembled brewer's yeast in color and thickness; they also drank vodka briskly from these vessels, 24 so that in a short time everyone became quite drunk and noisy to the point that they barely heard their own words, despite the presence of their Prince. " 25 The Ottoman traveler Evliya Celebi, describing the "fortress of Koysu", located six hours away from Endirei, which he visited in 1666, writes: "In this city... they don't drink any wine or spirits. They do not know what intoxicants are, but the disorderly [people] drink kumiss and buzu 26. The Ulama and the elderly drink a thick [dark] delicious buzu called " maksheme "(according to another list: makseme)"27. P. G. Butkov, who has studied archival materials of past centuries, writes: "Peter the Great found excellent grapes in Derbent (in 1722-MM.) and regretted that

21. Nazir ad-Durgeli. Uslada umov v biografii dagestanskikh uchenykh: Dagestanskiye uchenye i ikh sochineniya [The Delight of Minds in the biographies of Dagestani scientists: Dagestani scientists and their works]. and bibliogr. prepared by A. R. Shikhsaidov, M. Kemper, A. K. Bustanovym. Moscow: Marjani Publishing House, 2012. pp. 27, 39.

22. ' Ali al-Gumuki. "Tarajim' ulama'i Dagestan " (Manuscript in Arabic; place of storage: private collection of I. A. Kayaev). pp. 11-12.

23. "They" - the Russians; braga ( brew) - beer drink, the product of incomplete fermentation.

24. Vodka was purchased in the Tersk town , a Russian outpost in the Eastern Caucasus.

25. Detailed description of the journey of the Holstein embassy to Muscovy and Persia in 1633, 1636 and 1637, compiled by the secretary of the embassy Adam Olearius (translated by P. P. Barsov). Moscow, 1870. p. 988.

26. This drink is defined in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia as follows: "Buza (Turkish), a drink made from millet, buckwheat or oat flour in the same way as beer, but without hops. Elderberry contains 4-6% alcohol. Elderberry is widespread in the Crimea, the Caucasus, and to a lesser extent in Turkmenistan." In Dagestan, it was also made using hops.

27. Evliya Celebi. Travel book. (Extracts from the work of a Turkish traveler of the XVII century). Vol. 2. Zemli Severnogo Kavkaza, Povolzhya i Podonya [Lands of the North Caucasus, Volga Region and Don Region], transl. under the editorship of A. D. Zheltyakov, Moscow: Nauka, 1979, p. 118. It should be noted that in the Ossetian language buza is called "makh-syme". The term is consonant in many Indo-European languages and, apparently, has one root.

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they don't know how to make good wine out of it " 28. I. A. Gildenstedt, who collected information about Dagestan in the early 70s of the XVIII century, while in Transcaucasia, noted: "In Anshokul County... at Koisu's. It includes the village of Harakan and 14 others... Wine and fruit are found in this district. " 29 These fragmentary data indicate that the local population consumed alcohol, both on the plain and in the mountain valleys of Dagestan, and in the mountains, and that it was of various types. This is also evidenced by studies of ethnographers who record a significant variety of alcoholic beverages, 30 as well as folklore material. For example, there is a legend about how an Arab theologian came to Dagestan together with the jurist Ibrahim-Haji al-'Uradi (d. 1770-1771). In the morning, they went together to a special room (in Avar. "kulgiYa") for performing a ritual ablution. It was so cold that Ibrahim Haji had to break a crust of ice to dive into the water. The Arab was very cold, and Ibrahim-Haji, when he came home, gave him a drink of one of the types of buza (in the Avar language. "бакъва-чIагIа")31 for warming up. The Arab drank and said, " It is forbidden there( haram), but here it is permissible (halal)."32.

It is difficult to assume that Ibrahim-haji al - ' Uradi was a proponent of allowing the consumption of alcoholic beverages. He is known as a theologian of "radical" views, which is clearly shown in his legal conclusions, in particular in the question of the need for military campaigns in Transcaucasia, where he challenged the opinion of his contemporary Davud-Haji al-Usishi (d. 1757) 33.

28. Materials for the new history of the Caucasus from 1722 to 1803 by P. G. Butkova. St. Petersburg, 1869. p. 148. In Dagestan, chikhir (Turk) was produced - a young wine of incomplete fermentation( fermentation), in fact, a must, must. It was low-alcohol and quickly deteriorated.

29. Johann Anton Gildenstedt. Travel to the Caucasus in 1770-1773 St. Petersburg: Peterburgskoe vostokovedenie, 2002, p. 247.

30. Alimova B. M. Food and nutrition culture among the Turkic - speaking peoples of Dagestan in the XIX-early XX centuries. Makhachkala: Nauka Plus Publishing House, 2005, pp. 95-96; Ramazanova Z. B. Traditional food of the peoples of Nagorny Dagestan in the XIX-early XX centuries. Makhachkala: IIAE DNC RAS, 2011. pp. 139-145; Musaeva M. K. Traditional material culture of small-numbered peoples of Western Dagestan: A panoramic review. Makhachkala: Izdat. house "Peoples of Dagestan", 2003. pp. 121-123.

31. Incomplete fermentation of elderberry, even children used it.

32. A well-known legend in Dagestan, which is often jokingly used by alcohol lovers as an "excuse" for their actions. Informant: M. G. Shekhmagomedov, M. Sc. s. of the Institute of Nuclear Physics of the DNC RAS.

33. Musaev M. A. Vzglyad na "lekianoba" v kontekste izucheniya pravovykh otlozheniy dagestanskikh uchenykh-bogoslovov XVIII v. [A look at "lekianob" in the context of studying the legal conclusions of Dagestani scholars-theologians of the XVIII century]. 2013. N 10 (part 14). pp. 3225-3226.

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In the qasid of the latter there are such words: "We drank and got drunk from that. Intoxicants poured down on us like rain from the sky." Given that the author uses the personal pronoun of the 1st person of plural, it can be assumed that this is not about him, but about the entire Dagestani society. However, it should be borne in mind that "this qasidah of Davud is a haji in which he appeals to the Almighty and regrets his sins." 34
A well-known expert on the history and written culture of Dagestan 'Ali al-Gumuki (Kayaev, d. 1943) writes about the theologian Hasan al-Kudali (d. 1795): "Sometimes he would take one of his students as a companion and go to the city of Akhaltsikhe (Akhiskha)35 and he spent the winter there, and taught, and then returned home. It is said that [Hasan al-Qudali] sometimes consumed small amounts of alcoholic beverages (hamr), 36 known as "buza" and made in Dagestan, as well as other [wine]. " 37
Hasan (the Elder) al-Qudali is the author of various works, including legal ones. If alcoholic beverages were consumed by a well-known theologian in Dagestan, who of course found justification within the framework of Muslim law, then it should be concluded that some part of the population also had a predilection for drinking buza. A contemporary of Hasan who had friendly relations with him, Abu Bakr al - ' Aymaki (d. 17 9 1), prepared I'lam at-tilmiz bi ahkam an-nabiz ("Notification of a disciple according to the regulations [concerning] nabiz"), a legal work that deals with the issue of nabiz, by which in Dagestan was meant buza. Abu Bakr wrote his work in 1777 in order to eliminate the tradition of some teachers and their students regarding the permission to use nabiz. When explaining each question, a legal scholar quotes from the Qur'an and Sunnah, as well as statements by reputable legal scholars from all four madhhabs. He's writing:

I am surprised when I see scientists of Dagestan and their students, not to mention Dagestanis in general, who are indifferent to the leadership of the Republic of Dagestan.-

34. Nazir ad-Durgeli. Uslada umov v biografiyakh dagestanskikh uchenykh: Dagestanskikh uchenykh i ikh sochineniya [Delight of Minds in biographies of Dagestani scientists: Dagestani scientists and their works]. p. 29 (second pagination).

35. It was located within the Ottoman Empire, now on the territory of Georgia.

36.It should be borne in mind that 'Ali al-Gumuqi meant by "hamr" any alcoholic beverage.

37. ' Ali al-Gumuki. "Tarajim' ulama'i Dagestan " (Manuscript in Arabic; place of storage: private collection of I. A. Kayaev). p. 48.

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In particular, those who use nabiz, which distracts from the remembrance of Allah; [Dagestanis] do not accept a guest without offering nabiz until he becomes intoxicated, becoming a laughing stock for people. This is not acceptable to reason, let alone sharia law.

Abu Bakr points out that Abu Hanifa allowed the consumption of beverages that were not obtained from grapes and dates, unless the purpose was to use them for fun and fun. However, al - ' Aimaki believes that the statement of Abu Hanifa should not be understood as permissible nabiz, which is contrary to the Sunnah.

Know that anything intoxicating is forbidden. The ban is established by four fundamental sources of Muslim law - the Koran, Sunnah, Ijma and Qiyas... Obviously, Abu Bakr continues, Abu Hanifa, who lived before the three imams of other madhhabs, did not receive certain hadiths, such as: "What is intoxicating when consumed in large quantities is forbidden in small quantities"; " Drinks obtained from wheat, barley, dates, raisins, grapes there is wine , and I (the Prophet) forbid all intoxicants. " 38
Another contemporary of Ibrahim al - ' Uradi, Dawud al-Usishi, Abu Bakr al-Aymaki, and Hasan al-Qudali was Yusuf al-Salti. Yusuf and Hasan lived in settlements located several kilometers apart, and " there were scientific disputes between them on various issues. It is said that Hasan al-Qudali sometimes showed compliance and, after thinking, gave his opponent his due, and said: "I'm leaving room here for the leather tanner to express [his opinion].".. By leather tanner, he meant Yusuf al-Salti, because this is one of the Saltians ' main trades. [Yusuf] was a student of two prominent scholars, Dawud al-Usishi and Ibrahim al - ' Uradi. As-Salti is the author of several works, including one on the prohibition of wine. " 39
38. Gizbulaev M. A. Abubakar-khadzhi iz Aimaki - zhizn, tvorchestvo i nauchnoe nasledie [Abubakar-khadzhi iz Aimaki-life, creativity and scientific heritage]. Makhachkala, 2005. p. 38-39; Abu Bakr al - ' Aimaki. "I'lam at-tilmiz bi ahkam an-nabiz" (Manuscript in Arabic; place of storage: Oriental Manuscripts Fund of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the National Research Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences. f. 14. Op. 1. N 88).

39. ' Ali al-Gumuki. "Tarajim' ulama'i Dagestan " (Manuscript in Arabic; place of storage: private collection of I. A. Kayaev). p. 53.

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The above-mentioned Ulama are among the recognized Dagestani theological authorities. At the same time, some of them remained within the framework of the local drinking culture 40, allowed themselves to use elderberry and did not consider it contrary to religious norms. The presence of the above-mentioned works of al - ' Aimaki, al-Salti and al-Awari indicates that the question of the use of certain types of alcoholic beverages was relevant. Legal opinions were not issued without a reason, just as lengthy legal essays were not written unnecessarily. The latter were created primarily for the academic community in order to serve as a guide in explaining the postulates of faith to the Dagestani population.

Dagestan in the XVIII century. It was not a single state-legal space, while continuing to be one "country". It is hard to imagine that the opinion of the Ulema, who urged not to drink alcoholic beverages, could be heard when among the Dagestani theologians there were those who used them themselves. In addition, even within the same family, there could be opposing views - for example, in the family of hereditary theologians al-Awari. The Qadi of the Avar Khanate Dibir-Qadi al-Awari (d. 1817) collected excerpts from theological and legal writings and statements of Muslim authors in support of the ban on the production and drinking of wine. The text was titled " Takrirat fi tahrim al-hamr wa shurbihi "("Conclusions on the prohibition of [production of] alcoholic beverages and their drinking").41; it also contains Dibir-Qadi's conclusions, including the taboo of nabiz. At the same time, his younger brother Nur-Muhammad al-Awari (d. 1834), who took the post of Qadi of the khanate after Dibir-qadi, consumed alcohol (for more details, see below).

It should also be taken into account that there were Ulama whose words were at odds with their deeds. In this sense, it is not accidental that one Qadi calls out to his flock: "Listen to what the scholars say, and do not look at what they themselves do." 42
A very interesting case was recorded in his biographical work 'Ali al-Gumuki (Kayaev):

40.It should be borne in mind that buza is high in calories, does not require fire for cooking, and that it occupied an important place in the food system of Dagestanis.

41. Shikhsaidov A. R., Omarov Kh. A. Catalog of Arabic manuscripts (Moscow-S Collection). Saidova). Makhachkala Publishing House of the Printing House of the DNC RAS, 2005. pp. 70-71.

42. Omarov A. Memoirs of Mutalim / / Collection of information about the Caucasian mountaineers. Tiflis, 1868. Issue I. Ch. VII. P. 21.

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'Abdallah al-Sughuri, nicknamed "Shaitan"... in the sciences, he reached great heights and perfection, at the same time, he was fond of alcoholic beverages, did not have the willpower to such an extent that he drank household utensils. Then he would go so far as to steal what fell into his hands from his wife's property, sell it, and buy intoxicants. When his wife found out about it, she resisted it, but there was nothing she could do about it.

I was told by the scholar Nuzur al-Sughuri that ['Abdallah] sometimes made annual trips to the Hindalal community union (Khoisubu), where vineyards grew and alcoholic beverages were made, and he made trips every autumn to drink wine there and take it with him, after which he returned home. All this stopped after Imam Hamzat established the rules [of Sharia] there. ['Abdallah] then saw people there who had not seen him there before and did not pay attention to him. He saw that all the inhabitants [of Hindalal] became Murids, and they began to wrap their papakhs in a turban, which the Dagestanis had not done before, except for those who visited Mecca and performed the Hajj rite. 'Abdallah saw that all the people of [Hindalal] had repented of drinking wine, smoking, and doing other things contrary to Sharia that they had been immersed in before. They followed their religion, worshipped [Allah], and [began to perform] dhikr.43 This surprised 'Abdallah very much.

One day, ' Abdallah came to them on a Thursday. He saw that they had counted this day as a Friday and were about to start Friday prayers. 'Abdallah saw what they were doing, moved away from them, sat down and watched them, wondering at their omission regarding the [day of] festal prayer. Then, when they entered the mosque, he entered with them, performed the Friday prayer, went out before them, and sat down next to [the mosque]. After the people came out of the mosque, they approached him and began to exhort him to stop drinking wine. They instructed him, noting his deep knowledge and saying that because of this knowledge that he possessed, he should first repent and stop drinking wine. He listened to them until they stopped speaking, admonishing him, and reproaching him for his sins. He told them that he had accepted their instructions and thanked them for it. Then he said to them, " I also want to leave you a will, and I hope that you will be happy to receive it."-

43. Dhikr - the practice of theomnemia; a spiritual exercise that aims to feel the presence of Allah within you, to focus on Allah. Dhikr, as a rule , is a rhythmic, breathing-related repeatedly repeated remembrance of the names of Allah (asma' al-husna) or phrases containing the names of Allah.

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accept it as I have accepted your instructions." They asked: "What is this will?" 'Abdallah replied," I will bequeath to you that after this day you do not perform Friday prayers on a Thursday earlier than the time prescribed by Sharia law." He repeated it to them, pointed out their mistake, shamed them, and then they broke up 44.

This story is also used orally, in the form of a legend. It says that when the Hindalalese reproached him for drinking alcohol, he replied:: "Gyekyolev dun gIantav vatani, hamiz koyal ruzman balel nuzh shal kkolel?" (in Avar) - " If I, the drinker , am a fool, then who are you who perform Friday prayers on Thursday?".

Perhaps the most famous alcoholic drinker among Dagestani theologians is the scholar, teacher and political figure Sa'id al-Harakani (d. 1834). It is noteworthy that he was the grandson of Abu Bakr al - ' Aimaki, who wrote an essay criticizing the use of nabiz (see above). 'Ali al-Gumuqi (Kayaev) writes that Sa'id learned to drink buza from his mentor Hasan al-Qudali.45
Sa'id was an eloquent man, able to speak softly like the rulers with whom he was on excellent terms. He graced their company with his presence, and sometimes even allowed himself to drink [alcoholic beverages] with them. He issued a fatwa that it was permissible to drink a certain amount of them in a non-intoxicating dose, although none of them adhered to the [established] limits, and they often reached the level of intoxication ... 46

When Imam Ghazi Muhammad began to establish Sharia law as he understood it everywhere in Dagestan, Sa'id al-Harakani sharply criticized his actions. For this, the Imam in the very beginning-

44. ' Ali al-Gumuki. "Tarajim' ulama'i Dagestan " (Manuscript in Arabic; place of storage: private collection of I. A. Kayaev). p. 69.

45. ' Ali al-Gumuqi (Kayaev) writes (p. 79) that Sa'id al-Harakani, in turn, became addicted to alcohol of his disciple 'Abdulhalim al-Tsuishi:" ['Abdulhalim al-Tsuishi], like his teacher Sa'id al-Harakani, is a little bit he consumed alcoholic beverages and issued a fatwa on the permissibility of this. [Drinking alcohol] has become a habit for him. Before the lessons started, he would sometimes "perfume himself" and then start the lesson. He said that [alcohol] makes him more active in teaching."

46. ' Ali al-Gumuki. "Tarajim' ulama'i Dagestan " (Manuscript in Arabic; place of storage: private collection of I. A. Kayaev). p. 55.

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At the end of 1830, " Seyid Efendiy was driven out of his home, and his son was put in prison." At the same time, the imam ordered to pour all the wine stored in his house on the ground 47. The execution was carried out by Hamzat beg, who later became the successor of Ghazi-Muhammad. They were both students of Sa'id. There is a legend that on his way home to Arakani, Sa'id met a woman who sarcastically informed him of the library's demise: "Sa'id, your manuscripts are swimming in wine." He did not betray his grief and replied: "So be it! They deserved it - they contradicted each other."48. In desperation, hoping for the return of his main asset, books, Sa'id al-Harakani complained to his patron, Ghazi-Gumuk Khan Aslan, his colleague and disciple Sheikh Muhammad al-Yaragi, and his other disciple, Shamil, who is known to have become the next imam. 49
Ghazi Muhammad waged a relentless struggle against drinking alcoholic beverages; Hamzat beg continued it, although it is said that before becoming an imam, he allowed himself to use nabiz. Shamil waged this struggle with renewed vigor, applying, like his predecessors, Sharia norms of punishment. It should be noted that according to some sources, the fathers of Ghazi-Muhammad and Shamil liked to drink. The parent of the first, although well-versed in religious matters, led a carefree life and often consumed alcoholic beverages. Hasanilaw from Gimra points out that he was intoxicated and burned down nine houses of his fellow villagers who were at war with him. Ghazi Muhammad scolded his father, but could not influence him.50
From the information provided by the aforementioned Hasanilaw, it is clear that the ban on drinking alcohol was imposed by Ghazi Muhammad

47. Gammer M. Shamil. Muslim resistance to tsarism. The conquest of Chechnya and Dagestan. M.: Kron-Press, 1998, p. 84; Movement of mountaineers of the North-Eastern Caucasus in the 20-50 years of the XIX century. Collection of documents. Makhachkala: Dagestan Book Publishing House, 1959, p. 130.

48. Shikhsaidov A. R. Said Arakan // Dagestani shrines. Book two. Makhachkala: Epoch Publishing House, 2008, p. 149.

Here it should be borne in mind that "swimming in wine" is an allegory.

49. Kasumov S., Gichibekova R. O vzaimosheniyakh kadiya Saida Arakanskogo s imamami Gazi-Mukhammadom i Gamzat-Bek [On the relationship of the Qadi Said of Arakan with the imams Ghazi-Muhammad and Gamzat-Bek]. Makhachkala, 2012. Issue No. 48, p. 21.

50. Gasanilau (Gimrinsky). Imam (Qazi Mullah) Ghazimuhammad. (Translated from Avar by Bahadur Malachikhanov). Makhachkala, January 27, 1936. Manuscript / / Archive of the IIAE DNC RAS. F. 1. Op. 1. D. 84. L. 15, 20-21, etc.; Shamil in the Caucasus and in Russia. Biographical sketch / comp. by M. N. Chichagov. St. Petersburg, 1889, p. 15.

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gradually; perhaps he was following the example of the Prophet. First, it was allowed to use low-alcohol "buza", and then a complete ban was introduced. To characterize the first stage of Ghazi-Muhammad's struggle with alcohol, the following case is interesting. When the Gimri merchants went to Derbent to buy textiles, they turned to the imam with the question:"Is there any way to allow us to drink a little?". Ghazi-Muhammad advised contacting a local mullah who, being from Hunzah, "was used to drinking." The mullah asked for drinks - vodka and stale buza, after which he and those present drank them. They got drunk "to the point of collapsing" 51.

A review of sources and materials on the history of Dagestan in the first half of the 19th century shows that alcohol consumption was quite common. From the" Memoirs " of Abdulla Omarov, in which he describes the 40s-50s of the XIX century, it follows that the buza was part of the traditional culture. A wedding, a celebration of the birth of a son, or any celebration in general was not complete without it, and a buza was even given to the teacher for teaching religious sciences. Representatives of all social strata - Uzdenis, khans, rayats-drank. Despite the existence of strict ceremonial and etiquette frameworks, even during religious holidays, alcohol could be consumed. So, the author writes that in Kazanisht during the Muslim holiday of breaking the fast ('Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha)," it is difficult to meet five people, two of whom were not drunk."

As economic contacts with the Russians developed, wine, vodka, rum, liqueurs, and balsams gradually came into use. 52 The commander of the Russian troops in the Caucasus, A. P. Ermolov, wrote in his" Notes " not without satisfaction:"...But debauchery begins to take root from the use of hot drinks, to which they have a great predilection (means "akushintsev" - M. M.). Hitherto our state-owned wine serves as the most luxurious, and will it save them that the vice-governors sell water instead of vodka!"53.

51. Gasanilau (Gimrinsky). Imam (Qazi Mullah) Ghazimuhammad. (Translated from Avar by Bahadur Malachikhanov). Makhachkala, January 27, 1936. Manuscript / / Archive of the IIAE DNC RAS. F. 1. Op. 1. D. 84. L. 96-97.

52. Omarov A. Memoirs of Mutalim / / Collection of information about the Caucasian mountaineers. Tiflis, 1868. Issue I. Ch. VII. P. 17, 24, 29, 30, 39, 52; Omarov A. Memoirs of Mutalim / / Collection of information about the Caucasian mountaineers. Tiflis, 1869. Vol. II. Ch. VI. pp. 28, 42-43.

53. Notes of A. P. Ermolov. 1798-1826 Moscow: Vysshaya shkola Publ., 1991, p. 350.

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The use of stronger hot drinks led to the fact that the festive feast, designed to cheer up vacationers, was transformed into a social evil. The reason was seen as Russian influence, and this could have played a provoking role in the development of the liberation movement in Dagestan in the second half of the 1920s. 54

At the same time, it should be borne in mind that there was a social attitude according to which a devout Muslim should not drink alcohol. For example, one student of a madrasa, wishing to appear devout, did not even eat food made from yeast dough; 55 others" out of decency " watched the entertainment events from the side.56
Ghazi Muhammad was not the first ruler to crack down on alcohol. Under the Gazi-Gumuk Khan Surkhay II Kunbuttai in 1813, a special norm prohibited the purchase of vodka ('arak) and wine under the threat of a fine of a bull. Similar customary legal norms ('adat) were also introduced in some communities. For example, the Orota community decided to collect a cow " from the one who drinks wine... and from the one who makes wine in his house, even in small quantities"57.

Given the fact that alcohol consumption was widespread and that it was consumed by some Ulama, it seems logical to have texts that justify this fact.

The legal views of the aforementioned Nur-Muhammad al-Awari (d. 1834) on this issue are interesting. In his work, he criticizes Imam Ghazi-Muhammad, among other things, for the executions that were carried out in connection with the use of alcoholic beverages. Nur-Muhammad's position is as follows:

(1) If a person is a confirmed Hanafi who, in accordance with the Madhhab, is allowed to drink alcohol-

54. Magomedov A.D. Buza, wine... vodka: about a little-known page of the Caucasian War // Bulletin of the Institute of History, Archeology and Ethnography. 2015. N 3 (43). pp. 135-139.

55. Yeast was obtained during the preparation of elderberry.

56. Omarov A. Memoirs of Mutalim / / Collection of information about the Caucasian mountaineers. Tiflis, 1868. Issue I. Ch. VII. pp. 54-56; Omarov A. Memoirs of Mutalim / / Collection of information about the Caucasian mountaineers. Tiflis, 1869. Issue II. Ch. VI. P. 43.

57. Aitberov T. M. Khrestomatiya po istorii prava i gosudarstva Dagestana v XVIII-XIX vv. Ch. 2. Makhachkala: DSU Publishing House, 1999, pp. 106-107. The author of the publication dates the source to the 10th years of the XIX century.

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If he has taken an intoxicating amount of the drink (other than wine, which is forbidden), then he should be punished according to sharia law, but "his testimony (shahada) is accepted."

"You," al-Awari writes to Ghazi Muhammad, " should know the attitude of Hanafi scholars to the question of drinking alcohol and the punishment for this action. In particular, Imam Abu Hanifa believes that the punishment for drinking is obligatory only if it is wine (hamr). And for drinking other drinks, a person is punished only if he gets drunk.

(2) Drinking a non-intoxicating dose, with the exception of wine, is a minor sin (sagira), not a major one (kabira).

In his conclusions, Nur-Muhammad al-Awari refers to many works of the most famous Shafi'i jurists.

These arguments abound for me, " Nur-Muhammad writes. "I hope that the Almighty will not punish me for drinking a non-intoxicating dose of nabiz, the ban on the use of which is controversial. I follow Abu Hanifa in this matter... If a person commits any action that is not permissible among scholars, following the madhhab of the one who permits this action, then it is not considered a sin for him, since his following (taqlid) is justified... If a person sees someone drinking nabiz, then he cannot be blamed, because perhaps he is following the opinion of Abu Hanifa in this matter.59
Perhaps Nur-Muhammad was familiar with the conclusion of the Dagestani scholar-theologian Muhammad al-Kuduki (d. 1717), issued at the end of the XVII century. At least their conclusions are similar, although they use different arguments, refer to different sources, but both are Shafi'i theologians.

In his conclusion, Muhammad al-Quduqi first explains the difference in opinion between Shafi'i and Hanafi scholars on the issue of alcohol consumption, and then points out:

58. It follows from the writings of the Dagestani Ulama that they were guided by the opinion of some Hanafi theologians, who did not prohibit the use of certain alcoholic beverages in non-intoxicating doses.

59. Nur-Muhammad al-Awari. "Takrirat" (Manuscript in Arabic; place of storage: Oriental Manuscripts Fund of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences. M.-S. Collection Saidova. N 39).

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Muslims, including ascetic Sufis60, should not be accused of consuming alcoholic beverages in an amount that does not lead to intoxication... It is advisable not to drink beverages that are not agreed upon by legal experts. It is also advisable not to judge or discuss those who use them in a non-intoxicating dose. Judges (qadis) or rulers (amirs) have the right to do this (to judge and establish rules).

Further, the author focuses on the status of Hanafi and Shafi'i who use nabiz in non-intoxicating doses: whether their testimony (shahada) is accepted or not, which has important legal consequences within Islam (recognition of the validity of contracts, etc.). Muhammad al-Quduqi quotes from the work of one of the jurists and gives his explanation:

"If a Hanafi drinks a small amount of nabiz, then he should not be considered a wrongdoer (fasik). Accordingly, his certificate (shahada) is accepted. But if he is intoxicated, then he should be punished, as drunkenness is a sin (haram). However, if the nabiz is drunk by someone who considers nabiz forbidden, such as Shafi'i, then his testimony (shahada) is not accepted. Some say it is accepted." That is, this judgment is controversial. From the words of Imam ash-Shafi'i, it should be understood that the testimony is accepted.

It is a greater sin (haram) to consider what is illegal as permissible than committing this sin. If a person considers adultery (zina) permissible, then he becomes an infidel (kafir), but if he commits adultery, then he does not.

Within the Shafi'i madhhab, the testimony (shahadah) of a Hanafi, that is, one who considers a small amount of nabiz permissible, is accepted. Although it is a great sin to recognize what is illegal as permissible from the point of view of the Shafi'i madhhab. A Shafi'i who uses nabiz is committing a sin, but it is a small sin, less than disbelief (kufr). Therefore, if the testimony of a Hanafi is accepted, then the testimony of a Shafi'i who uses nabiz in a non-intoxicating dose should also be accepted.61
60. It is emphasized that Sufis took an irreconcilable position regarding the use of nabiz.

61. Muhammad al-Quduqi. "Takrirat fi mas'ala al-nabiz" (Digital copy of the manuscript in Arabic; place of storage: private collection of M. G. Shekhmagomedov).

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We have given rather lengthy quotations from the legal opinion of Muhammad al-Quduqi, since it became widespread in Dagestan and was intended to serve as a guide for theologians of subsequent generations due to the authority of this author.

As we can see, Dagestani scholars and theologians did not agree in their opinions on alcohol consumption, and some of them followed the Hanafi madhhab rather than the Shafi'i one. But, undoubtedly, the prevailing opinion was about a total ban on the use of alcoholic beverages, even in small doses. For example, the mid-nineteenth-century jurist Ahmad ar-Rugji, who served as qadi in Ruguja, wrote Mas'ala fi-l-khubz, 62 which discusses the permissibility of using fermentation products in baking bread.

Perhaps the most succinct views of Dagestani legal scholars on the issue of banning alcohol consumption were expressed by 'Umar al-Khunzahi 63 in his" Address " in the genre of nasihat:

As for the decision on the issue of drinking intoxicating drinks. It is forbidden, according to the text of the hadith, which reads: "Anything that intoxicates is wine, and any wine is forbidden." It follows that any intoxicating drink is also forbidden. Drinking it is forbidden. The person who does this ignores the precepts of religion. Imam ash-Shafi'i refers to alcohol as an impurity, comparing it to human excrement. There are many hadiths about the prohibition of alcohol. Until now, it was about drinking by ordinary people, and as for scientists, even a small sin becomes a big one for them, as it follows from the books on tawhid (dogmatics), since they are an example for others. The following hadeeth is narrated: "Whoever sets a bad example is punished for it and for those who follow his example until the Day of Judgment. However, those who follow him are also punished." And you, the people of Dagestan,

62. Catalog of Arabic manuscripts of the K. S. Kekelidze Institute of Manuscripts (Collection L-Issue II) / Compiled by R. V. Gvaramia, N. G. Kanchaveli, L. I. Mamulia, L. V. Samkurashvili. Tbilisi: Kavkazsky dom Publ., 2002, p. 203; Ahmad ar-Rugji. "Mas'ala fi-l-khubz" (Manuscript in Arabic; place of storage: Georgian National Center of Manuscripts. ArL. N 463).

63. The authors of the translation identify him with the eighteenth-century theologian, writer, and poet 'Umar b. 'Abdusalam al-Daghistani, a descendant of a Dagestani family that settled in Mecca in the early seventeenth century.

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Slander Musalaw (Muhammad al-Quduqi - M. M.) and Damadan [al-Muhi] (d. 1724 - M. M.), claiming that both of them allowed themselves to drink (alcohol). But in reality, those who attribute this action to such people are liars and offend the honor of these accomplished scientists. And if such an action was committed by them, then they made a mistake in this. But they are not infallible (i.e., prophets) or even mujtahid imams, but only followers of the madhhabs of those imams. And if a follower (muqallid) makes a mistake in his conclusions and makes a decision that contradicts the decision of his imam, then we cannot follow his word.64
Summarizing the above, we can come to the following conclusions.

Despite the fact that the population of Dagestan followed the Shafi'i madhhab, in which the production and consumption of alcoholic beverages is prohibited, there is numerous evidence that in the XVII - first half of the XIX century. they were produced and used. This also applies to wine, which is prohibited in all Muslim law schools.

Nabiz (buza) was used by some Dagestani theologians, who found justification for this in the fact that they follow the Hanafi madhhab in this matter, within the framework of the classical works of whose representatives it is allowed to drink certain types of alcoholic beverages in non-intoxicating doses.

Among Dagestani scholars and theologians, it was widely believed that the use of any alcoholic drink is forbidden (haram), but that it is a minor sin, so the testimony (shahada) of this person is accepted. They believed that if a person follows the Hanafi madhhab, then it is permissible to consume alcoholic beverages that are not included in the category of "hamr" in non-intoxicating portions. The explanation of this position should probably be sought in the undesirable legal consequences of non-acceptance of the certificate (shahadah) of persons who use nabiz, which was a common phenomenon.

Several Dagestani scholars and theologians have written works justifying a complete ban on the use of alcohol.

64. Abdulmazhidov R. S., Shekhmagomedov M. G. The appeal of Umar al-Khunzahi to the residents of Dagestan: general characteristics and commented translation. 2013. N 1. P. 133.

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alcohol, including in the smallest portions. They believed that the testimony (shahada) of a person who consumes alcohol in any dosage is not accepted.

In some feudal states, community unions, and individual communities, local bans on the use of alcoholic beverages with non-sharia punishments (hadd) were introduced.

Imams (Ghazi Muhammad, Hamzat bey and Shamil) imposed a complete ban on the production, trade and consumption of alcoholic beverages. Those who violated the ban were punished in accordance with Sharia law.

Legal opinions and fatwas of scholars of theology had little impact on the daily practice of alcohol consumption by the local population; they became more effective when they were supported by state-legal coercion.

Bibliography / References

Sources

Abu Bakr al - ' Aimags. "I'lam at-tilmiz bi ahkam an-nabiz" (Manuscript in Arabic; place of storage: Oriental Manuscripts Fund of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the National Research Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences. f. 14. Op. 1. N 88).

Ahmad ar-Rugji. "Mas'ala fi-l-khubz" (Manuscript in Arabic; place of storage: Georgian National Center of Manuscripts. ArL. N463).

Ali al-Gumuki. "Tarajim' ulama'i Dagestan " (Manuscript in Arabic; place of storage: private collection of I. A. Kayaev).

Muhammad al-Quduqi. "Takrirat fi mas'ala al-nabiz" (Digital copy of the manuscript in Arabic; place of storage: private collection of M. G. Shekhmagomedov).

Nur-Muhammad al-Awari. "Takrirat" (Manuscript in Arabic; place of storage: Oriental Manuscripts Fund of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences. M.-S. Collection Saidova. N39).

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Gasanilau (Gimrinsky). Imam (Qazi Mullah) Ghazimuhammad. (Translated from Avarsky by Bahadur Malachikhanov). Makhachkala, January 27, 1936. Manuscript / / Archive of the IIAE DNC RAS. F. 1. Op. 1. D. 84.

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Catalog of Arabic Manuscripts of the K. S. Kekelidze Institute of Manuscripts (Collection L-Issue II) / Compiled by R. V. Gvaramia, N. G. Kanchaveli, L. I. Mamulia, L. V. Samkurashvili. Tbilisi: Kavkazskiy dom Publ., 2002.

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Detailed description of the journey of the Holstein embassy to Muscovy and Persia in 1633, 1636 and 1637, compiled by the secretary of the embassy Adam Oleary (translated by P. P. Barsov). Moscow, 1870.

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Evlia Celebi. Travel book. (Extracts from the work of a Turkish traveler of the XVII century). Issue 2. Zemli Severnogo Kavkaza, Povolzhya i Podonya [Lands of the North Caucasus, Volga Region and Don Region].

Archival materials

al-Awari, Nur Muhammad. "Taqrirat" [Arabic]. (Rukopis' na arabskom iazyke; mesto khraneniia: Fond vostochnykh rukopisei IIAE DNTs RAN. Kollektsiia M. -S. Saidova. N39).

al-'Aymaki, Abu Bakr. "I'lam al-tilmidh bi ahkam al-nabidh" [Arabic]. (Rukopis' na arabskom iazyke; mesto khraneniia: Fond vostochnykh rukopisei IIAE DNTs RAN. F. 14. Op. 1. N 88).

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