The article presents the results of studying the pottery technology of the Volga-Ural population in the early Bronze Age. The sources of the work are ceramic collections from funerary monuments of the Yamnaya culture. The study was conducted in accordance with the method of technical and technological analysis of ceramics developed by A. A. Bobrinsky. Pottery of the Yamnaya culture population is characterized as a special field of activity. Data on the technology are used to discuss the origin and development of native yamnaya culture carriers. The role of ceramics in the funerary rituals of the Early Bronze Age population is considered.

Keywords: ceramics, ceramic manufacturing technology, raw materials, molding materials, construction methods, filling, hollow body, cultural traditions, labor skills.

Introduction

Many issues related to the study of the pit culture are still debatable. For example, there is no consensus about the ways in which the population that left similar monuments of the Yamnaya culture in the vast steppe area from the Danube to the Urals was formed, about the formation of local groups of carriers of this culture, the ratio of monuments of the Yamnaya and subsequent cultures of the Middle Bronze Age, as well as the possibility of reconstructing the social structure of society only on the basis of the results of studying the funeral rite. Most often, when solving these problems, materials on ceramics and data on the features of the funeral rite are used. Recently, researchers have drawn attention to the fact that not all burials of the pit culture are accompanied by clay dishes. This observation is very important, since in the Middle Bronze Age, following the period of the pit culture, almost every burial was placed in a clay vessel (often more than one). Researchers explain the presence of pottery in only a few burials of the Yamnaya culture in different ways: some of them are due to the peculiarities of the social structure [Salugina, 2008], others - to the insignificant role of ceramics in the funeral rites [Mochalov, 2009, p.79]. The appearance of new materials from neighboring territories makes us once again turn to the discussion of this issue.

This article presents the results of a technological study of ceramics from the burial sites of the pit culture of the Volga-Ural region and, using these materials, discusses debatable issues of the history of the population that left these monuments. M. A. Turetsky considers the Volga-Urals - the territories of the Samara and Orenburg regions - to be the area of the Middle Volga-Ural variant of the Yamnaya cultural and historical community (Fig. 1) [1999]. The appeal to the technology of ceramic production is due to the fact that it is the results of its study that can be considered a full-fledged historical source.

page 82
A. A. Bobrinsky developed a historical and cultural approach to the study of ceramics [1978, 1999], which involves identifying and studying the signs of the use of specific labor skills. This approach makes it possible to reconstruct events and processes in the history of individual groups of the ancient population based on the results of analysis of pottery technology [Bobrinsky, 1999, p. 6]. Technological analysis of ceramics is based on binocular microscopy, experiment, and ethnographic data and consists of two consecutive stages: the first is the collection of information about the manufacturing technology of each specific vessel; the second is to summarize such information about all the vessels studied and reconstruct the technological traditions characteristic of the studied population. The selection of technological information was carried out in accordance with the natural structure of pottery production, which includes ten mandatory and two optional stages, which are combined into three stages [Ibid., pp. 9-11]. The translation of technological information into historical information is based on the conclusion of A. A. Bobrinsky about the different rates of changes in labor skills in the conditions of mixing of different cultural populations. Skills that change quite quickly (selection of raw materials, preparation of molding masses, surface treatment) are called adaptive by the researcher, and those that show stability (construction of the filling and hollow body and shaping) are called substrate skills (Bobrinsky, 1978, p. 244).

This article is based on the results of microscopic analysis of 47 vessels. The collection includes both whole forms from burials and fragments of individual vessels found in the mounds of mounds. All ceramics are divided into two groups. The first group includes vessels of the Repin type - with a dedicated neck (Table 1). 1; Fig. 2). Almost all researchers who deal with the study of ceramics in their works refer to dishes with a dedicated neck as a special type. Many people believe that it belongs to the early stage of the pit culture [Vasiliev, Kuznetsov, and Turetsky, 2000, p. 19; Trifonov, 1996, p. 5; Bogdanov, 2004; Salugina, 2005, p. 85; 20066, p.76]. The second group consists of vessels of classical appearance, as well as ceramic products that were previously attributed either to the late stage of the pit culture, or to the stage of transition from the early to the Middle Bronze Age. Their distinctive feature is a flattened bottom. In this article, they are combined into one group, since they reflect the late stage of development of the pit culture (tab. 2; fig. 3).

Fig. 1. Map of the location of monuments of yamnaya culture (Middle Volga-Ural variant), the ceramics of which are considered in the article.

Territory of the Samara region: 1-Kashpir III; 2-Kashpir III single mound; 3-Ekaterinovka; 4-Vladimirovka; 5-Grachevka II; 6-Lopatino I; 7-Potapovka; 8-Pokrovka I; 9-Utevka I; 10-Nikolaevka III; 11-Bereznyaki I; 12 - Zhuravlykha I.

Territory of the Orenburg region: 13-Baryshnikov; 14-Gerasimovka II; 15-Mustaevo; 16-Trudovoe II; 17-Boldyreve I; 18-Boldyreve IV; 19-Shumaevo II; 20-Efimovka IV; 21-Skvortsovka; 22-Petrovka I; 23-Linevka III; 24-Five-year Plan; 25-Izobilnoe I; 26-Tamar-Utkul VIII; 27-Uvak.

Results of technical and technological analysis of pit culture ceramics

Before proceeding to the presentation of the results of technological analysis of ceramics, it is necessary to make a number of methodological comments.

1. When analyzing raw materials, researchers distinguish silts, silty clays, and geological clays. As such, silts were first isolated and characterized by A. A. Bobrinsky and I. N. Vasilyeva [1998]. Silty raw materials of ceramics of the Volga-Ural pit culture have the following qualitative composition: quartz sand is transparent, rounded and semi-rolled, the particle size is 0.1-0.3 mm; individual grains of sand are 0.5 mm in size, the sand concentration is small: 5-7-9 inclusions per 1 cm2; not much-

page 83
Table 1. Vessels of Repin appearance from burials of the Yamnaya culture, units.

Monument

Burial

Mound of the mound

Total

Buried

Total

Kid

Adult

Samara region.

Ekaterinovka V, uch. 1

1

-

1

-

1

1

Yekaterinovka, a ruined burial site

1

-

1

-

1

1

Pokrovka I, mound 15, border 2

1

-

1

1

-

1

Lopatino I, mound 31

-

2

2

-

-

-

Potapovka, mound 5, border 1

1

-

1

1

-

1

Grachevka II, mound 5, border 4

1

-

1

1

-

1

Grachevka II, mound 7, border 1, 2

2

-

2

2

-

2

Total

7 (77,8)

2 (22,2)

9 (100)

5 (71,4)

2 (28,6)

7 (100)

Orenburg region.

Petrovka, mound 1, border 1

2

-

2

-

2

2

Gerasimovka II, mound 4, border 2

1

-

1

-

1

1

Boldyrevo I, mound 8, border 2

1

-

1

-

1

1

Boldyrevo I, mound 9, embankment

-

2

2

-

-

-

Boldyrevo I, mound 1, border 1

1

-

1

-

1

1

Skvortsovka, mound 5, border 2

1

-

1

1

-

1

Total

6 (75)

2 (25)

8 (100)

1 (16,7)

5 (83,3)

6 (100)

Total

13 (76,5)

4 (23,5)

17 (100)

6 (46,2)

7 (53,8)

13 (100)

Note. Here and further, the percentage of vessels found in a particular archaeological context is indicated in parentheses.

2. Ceramics of the Repin form from burials of the pit culture of the Volga-Ural region.

1, 2-Petrovka I, mound 1, border 1; 3-Ekaterinovka V, uch. 1; 4-Potapovka, mound 5, border 1; 5-Ekaterinovka, destroyed burial; 6-Pokrovka, mound 15, border 2; 7-Gerasimovka II, mound .4, border 2; 8-Boldyreve I, mound 8, border 2; 9-Boldyreve I, mound 9, embankment; 10, 11-Lopatino I, mound 31, embankment.

page 84
Table 2. Vessels of classical and late appearance from burials of the Yamnaya culture, units.

Monument

Burial

Mound of the mound

Total

Pogrebny

Total

Kid

Teenager

Adult

Adult + Child

Samara region.

III Kashpir single mound

-

3

3

-

-

-

-

-

Kashpir III, mound 3, border 1

1

-

1

-

-

1

-

1

Nikolaevka III, mound 3, border 1

1

-

1

1

-

-

-

1

Ekaterinovka II, excavation 1, border 3

1

-

1

-

-

1

-

1

Bereznyaki, mound 14, border 1

2

-

2

-

-

2

-

2

Lopatino I, mound 31, border 1

1

-

1

-

-

1

-

1

Lopatino II, mound 3

1

-

1

-

-

1

-

1

Grachevka II, mound 7

1

2

3

1

-

-

-

1

Grachevka II, mound 5, border 2

1

-

1

-

-

1

-

1

Vladimirovka, mound 4, border 4

1

-

1

-

-

1

-

1

Zhuravlykha street, I, mound 16

1

-

1

-

-

1

-

1

Utevka I, mound 1, border 1

1

-

1

-

-

1

-

1

Total

12 (70,6)

5 (29,4)

17 (100)

2 (16,7)

-

10 (83,3)

-

12 (100)

Orenburg region.

Tamar-Utkul VIII, mound 4, border 1

1

-

1

-

-

-

1

1

Tamar-Utkul VIII, mound 5, border 1

1

-

1

1

-

-

-

1

Tamar-Utkul VIII, mound 8, border 1

2

-

2

-

2

-

-

2

Uvak, kurg. 5, pogr. 6

1

-

1

1

-

-

-

1

Baryshnikov, mound 3, border 6

1

-

1

1

-

-

-

1

Baryshnikov, mound 4, border 1

1

-

1

-

-

1

-

1

Baryshnikov, mound 5, border 1

1

-

1

1

-

-

-

1

Boldyrevo IV, mound 2, border 5

1

-

1

-

-

1

-

1

Boldyrevo I, mound 9, embankment

-

2

2

-

-

-

-

-

Gerasimovka II, mound 1, border 1

1

-

1

1

-

-

-

1

Gerasimovka II, mound 6, border 2

1

-

1

-

-

1

-

1

Five-year plan, mound 5

-

1

1

-

-

-

-

-

Trudovoe II, mound 5, border 1

1

-

1

-

-

1

-

1

Izobilnoye I, mound 5, border 1

1

-

1

-

-

1

-

1

Izobilnoye I, mound 3, border 1

1

-

1

-

-

-

1

1

Linevka III, mound 1, border 1

1

-

1

-

-

1

-

1

Mustaevo V, mound 8, border 2

1

-

1

-

-

1

-

1

Shumaevo II, mound 4, border 2

1

-

1

1

-

-

-

1

Shumaevo II, mound 7, border 3

1

-

1

-

-

1

-

1

Efimovka IV, mound 6, border 1

1

-

1

-

-

1

-

1

Skvortsovka, mound 6, border 2

1

-

1

-

-

1

-

1

Skvortsovka, mound 5, border 4

1

-

1

-

-

1

-

1

Total

21 (87,5)

3 (12,5)

24 (100)

6 (28,6)

2 (9,5)

11 (52,4)

2 (9,5)

21 (100)

Total

33 (80,5)

8(19,5)

41 (100)

8 (24,2)

2(6,1)

21 (63,6)

2(6,1)

33 (100)

page 85

3. Ceramics of general pit appearance from burials of the pit culture of the Volga-Ural region.

1-Boldyrevo IV, mound 2, border 5; 2, 5-Tamar-Utkul VIII, mound 8, border 1; 3, 7-III Kashpir single mound, embankment; 4-Efimovka IV, mound 6, border 1; 6-Baryshnikov, mound 4, border 1; 8-Lopatino I, mound 31, border 1; 9-Bereznyaki I, mound 14, border 1; 10-Mustaevo V, mound 8, border 2; 11-Trudovoe II, mound 5, border 1; 12 - Lopatino II, kurg. 3, pogr. 2; 13-Baryshnikov, kurg. 3, pogr. 6; 14-Kashpir III, kurg. 3, pogr. 1; 15-Pyatiletka, kurg. 5; 16-Utevka I, mound 1, border 1; 17-Zhuravlykha I, mound 1, border 16; 18-Izobilnoye I, mound 5, border 1; 19, 21-Boldyreve I, mound 9, embankment; 20-Shumaevo II, mound 7, border 3.

small (1,0-1,5 mm) lumps of pure undissolved clay; lumps of reddish-brown clay substance impregnated with iron oxides, 1,0 - 1,5 mm in size; ools of brown ironstone, 1 - 2 mm in size; plant remains of water origin. The latter are represented by filamentous inclusions, which are sometimes located separately, sometimes grouped in bundles, as well as fragments of plant stems and leaves. The peculiarity of plant residues in the composition of silts is the absence of deformation in the form of traces of snacking and splitting. They vary in size: from 2-3 to 3 - 4 cm. Single whole small specimens of snails are present, and shell fragments are present in a small concentration. Silty clays were identified by I. N. Vasilyeva [2002, p. 19; 2005, p. 76-77]. Silty clays recorded in the studied ceramics have the following qualitative composition: quartz rounded colored sand with a size of 0.1-0.3 mm, individual grains of sand with a size of up to 0.5-0.7 mm in an average concentration:

page 86
up to 50 grains of sand of different sizes per 1 cm 2; oolitic brown ironstone measuring 1.0 - 3.0 mm; rounded lumps of pure clay; rounded clay inclusions saturated with iron oxides; single prints of rotted plant remains up to 2 - 3 mm in size. As it was established during a detailed comparison, silts and silty clays are very similar in quality composition. The differences are mainly manifested in the greater saturation of silts with plant residues, the nature of which can be defined as aquatic flora (remains of intertwined filamentous inclusions, long, undeformed parts of stems and leaf plates). It can be argued that the raw materials for the manufacture of the considered ceramics (silts or silty clays) it was selected in places associated with water bodies. It is important to emphasize that the use of silts or clays reflects different ideas of the population about the principles of raw material selection, and consequently, different cultural traditions [Bobrinsky, 1978, pp. 73-78].Clays as a geological sedimentary rock and as a raw material for the manufacture of ceramics are characterized by the following qualitative composition: quartz sand, rounded, multicolored, the size of grains of sand is 0.3-0 mm (the concentration of sand in clays is different); brown ironstone ools up to 2 mm in size; sometimes small (less than 1 mm) mica flakes are recorded. In the studied material, clays of two qualitatively different types are distinguished - ozhelezny and neozhelezny. When fired in an oxidizing medium, they differ in color: ozhelezny clays acquire a terracotta color, non - ozhelezny ones-cream.

2. It is a difficult task to identify the shell in the composition of ceramics. I have already considered the features of distinguishing the shell as a component of the feedstock and as an impurity artificially introduced into the molding mass [Salugina, 2006a], but in this paper I consider it necessary to clarify them. The shell in the composition of silts and silty clays has the following features: its outlines, as a rule, are rounded; mother-of-pearl is not preserved; the color ranges from whitish to brownish; often the surface of the shell is eaten away by microorganisms; when crushing the raw material containing the shell, the latter does not split into horizontal plates. The concentration of shells in the raw material is small. Artificial insertion of the shell into the molding mass is most easily determined if the shell was previously heated. It is distinguished by the following qualitative features: the outlines on one side are angular (due to crushing), on the other - rounded (due to heating and softening); the color is ash-gray; the mother-of-pearl is preserved; splitting into horizontal plates. The concentration of artificially introduced conch is usually significant.

3. The term "dredge" refers to specially crushed rock.

4. The organic solution in the molding mass is fixed according to the following characteristics: areas or the entire fracture are impregnated with a black "fat" shiny substance, they seem to be enveloped by mineral inclusions; there are amorphous voids, the walls of which are covered with a red, whitish or black coating.

5. When studying the construction of dishes, the methods of making the filling and hollow body are determined. Highlighting the features of these techniques when creating a single vessel allows us to determine the technological schemes (or systems) of designing dishes that are characteristic of a specific population group. Based on the studied material, four design schemes are traced (indicated by Roman numerals).

6.In order to better determine the degree of iron content of the feedstock, the nature of artificial and natural impurities, and to create unified conditions for observations, small fragments of each vessel were additionally heated to 800 °C in a muffle furnace in an oxidizing medium before starting the analysis.

Technology of Repin ceramics from burials of the Yamnaya culture

The group included 17 vessels: 9 from the Samara Region and 8 from the Orenburg Region (see Table 1).

Selection, extraction, and processing of raw materials (stages 1-3). For the manufacture of dishes, the population who left burials with Repin-type ceramics chose two types of raw materials - silt and silty clays. Both types were used in a naturally moistened state, no signs of drying of raw materials were recorded. Mud selection skills prevailed. This tradition was typical for potters of the Volga and Ural regions. Silty clays were used only by potters of the Urals region (Table 3).

Composing molding materials (step 4). When studying the features of composing molding masses, the use of raw materials both pure, without artificial impurities, and with special impurities is recorded: crushed shell, chamotte and organic solution. Recipes for molding masses are as follows: 1) silt without artificial additives; 2) silt + crushed shell; 3) silt clay + crushed shell; 4) silt + crushed shell + organic solution; 5) silt clay + crushed shell + organic solution; 6) silt + chamotte + + organic solution; 7) silt clay + chamotte + + organic solution (Table 3). The shell before being introduced into the molding mass is pre-applied to-

page 87
Table 3. Repin-shaped vessels from burials of the Yamnaya culture, differing in the initial raw material and composition of molding masses, units.

Components of the molding compound

Sludge

Muddy clay

Total

Samara region.

Without impurities

2
(Potapovka, mound 5, border 1; Lopatino I, mound 31, embankment)

-

2

Crushed shell

4
(Ekaterinovka V, uch. 1; Ekaterinovka, razr. border; Lopatino I, mound 31, embankment; Pokrovka, mound 15, border 2)

-

4

Crushed shell + organic solution

3
(Grachevka II, mound 7, border 1, 2; mound 5, border 4)

-

3

Total

9 (100)

-

9 (100)

Orenburg region.

Without impurities

2
(Petrovka I, mound 1, border 1; Skvortsovka, mound 5, border 2)

-

2

Crushed shell

2
(Gerasimovka II, mound 4, border 2; Petrovka I, mound 1)

1
(Boldyrevo I, mound 8, border 2)

3

Crushed shell + organic solution

-

1
(Boldyrevo I, mound 9, embankment)

1

Chamotte + organic solution

1
(Boldyrevo I, mound 1, border 1)

1
(Boldyrevo I, mound 9, embankment)

2

Total

5 (62,5)

3 (37,5)

8 (100)

Total

14(82,4)

3(17,6)

17(100)

I warmed up and warmed up. Composing molding materials using a shell is the most widespread tradition among the studied population. Molding masses with the addition of chamotte are marked only for products from the Urals. In general, the population of both territorial groups used identical admixtures.

Designing dishes (stages 5-7). The vessels studied are mostly presented either in fragmentary or restored form, so the data on their design are very limited. Microscopic analysis revealed that: 1) in the manufacture of fillings, bottom-capacitive and capacitive-bottom design programs were used; 2) both base forms and container forms with gaskets made of soft materials were used as a mold model; 3) small portions of clay-flaps built up along a spiral trajectory served as building elements. The hollow body of the above vessels was constructed from flaps that were built up along a spiral trajectory. Specific construction methods were identified for 5 of the 17 vessels. For the rest, you can only note sculptural modeling with the help of spiral-patchwork extensions. When using form models, the shape of the future vessel was formed at the design stage. The final shaping of the vessel took place when squeezing out with fingers and slightly knocking out the walls with a mallet with a smooth working part.

Two technological systems - I and IV-have been identified for Repin-shaped tableware. System I assumed the manufacture of the top of the vessel in accordance with the bottom-tank program in a spiral-flap method. The hollow body was also made of flaps, which were built up along a spiral trajectory. The shape was given during the design, when model forms were used (Gerasimovka II, mound 4). In accordance with the design system IV, the filling was made according to the tank-bottom program. Both the nachin and the hollow body were created from flaps that were built up along a spiral trajectory (Yekaterinovka V; Yekaterinovka, destroyed

page 88
burial; Potapovka; Skvortsovka, mound 5). The presence of two fundamentally different design systems is evidence of the population's composition based on at least two cultural groups that had their own traditions of making dishes.

Surface treatment of vessels (step 8). It was most often made by simple smoothing using various tools: a wooden scraper (traces in the form of deep thin lines), a wooden combed stamp (traces in the form of uniform multidirectional grooves- "combs"), pebbles, fingers, a soft object (the material is still difficult to identify). As a rule, both surfaces of the vessel were treated with the same tool. On one vessel (Lopatino I, mound 31, mound) there are traces of polishing on a dried base.

Strengthening of vessels and elimination of water permeability of their walls (steps 9, 10). These tasks were solved during heat treatment. The fractures of almost all vessels have a three-layer staining, which indicates a short stay of dishes in the zones of hot temperatures.

Thus, the technical and technological analysis of Repin ceramics revealed a great cultural affinity of both adaptive (selection of silt as a feedstock, use of crushed shell mainly in the preparation of molding masses, smoothing as the main method of surface treatment) and substrate (application of mainly technological scheme IV) skills. It is important to note that the craftsmen who made ceramics of the Repin appearance had clear ideas about raw materials - they chose mainly silt; two different cultural groups with their own skills in designing dishes took part in the addition of this population group.

Technology of classical and late type ceramics from burials of the Yamnaya culture

Selection, extraction and preparation of raw materials (stages 1-3). Three types of raw materials were selected for the production of ceramics: silts, silty clays and geological clays. According to the studied material, two different types of clays were recorded: ozhelezny and neozhelezny, as well as concentrates made up of a mixture of ozhelezny and neozhelezny clays and a mixture of silt with neozhelezny clay (Table 4). It should be noted that if silts were selected by representatives of both territorial groups, then silty clays were more often selected by the population of the Volga region, and geological clays - by the population of the Volga region. residents of the Urals. The composition of concentrates is recorded only for the territory of Orenburg region. At the same time, non-ironed clay was used exclusively as part of concentrates. The emergence of this tradition and the tradition of composing concentrates can be explained by the invasion of the Orenburg region by migrants with their own stable ideas about raw materials. This thesis is confirmed by the presence in the molding masses of vessels of chamotte, also made from a mixture of ozheleznennoy and neozheleznennoy clays. At a certain stage in the environment of the studied population, a mixing process began between carriers of different ideas about the raw material, as indicated by the recorded concentrates made up of silt and non-ironed clay.

Raw materials were used both in a naturally moistened and dried, and then crushed state. Non-ironed clay was used only in the dried and crushed state.

Composing molding materials (step 4). We used both pure raw materials without artificial admixtures, and with additives: crushed freshwater clam shells, chamotte, dredge and organic solution. Many components were specially prepared before being introduced into the molding mass. The shell was preheated on coals, and then crushed and kneaded. Heating of the shell occurred unevenly, which determined the different degree of calcination of its individual parts and the variety of qualitative features of its inclusions. The size of shell inclusions varies from pulverized to 8-9 mm. The concentration of shells in the composition of molding masses is usually significant. Chamotte was introduced into the molding mass in the form of medium and large particles (0.9-2.0 mm) at a concentration of 1 : 4 and 1 : 5. In its composition, chamotte and shell are fixed. The gravel was prepared by crushing sandstone rock and is represented by particles of 0.5-0.9 mm in size. The organic component of the molding mass is fixed in the form of an organic solution. The specific composition of the solution cannot be determined without special experiments. In some samples (Utevka I, mound 1, border). 1; Lopatino I, mound 31, border 1) highly ground plant residues are fixed in the molding mass together with the solution, which suggests the use of manure pomace. According to the studied material, 13 recipes for composing molding masses are distinguished (Table 4). The most widely used skills for composing molding masses according to the recipe chamotte + organic solution. The population of the Samara Volga region and Orenburg region had different traditions of composing molding masses. The first one is characterized by adding to the initial raw materials (silts and silty clays).-

page 89
See Table 4. Vessels of classical and late appearance from burials of the Yamnaya culture, differing in the initial raw material and composition of molding masses, units.

Components of the molding compound

Sludge

Muddy clay

Ozheleznyaya clay

Ozheleznennaya + neozheleznennaya clay

Silt + non-ironed clay

Total

Samara region.

Without impurities

2
(III Kashpir single mound, mound)

-

-

-

-

2 (18,2)

Organic solution

-

1
(Lopatino I, mound 31, border 1)

-

-

-

1 (9)

Crushed shell

2
(Grachevka II, mound 7, border 2; Lopatino II, mound 3, border 2)

-

-

-

2(18,2)

Chamotte + organic solution

1
(Zhuravlykha I, mound 16)

1
(Bereznyaki I, mound 14, border 1)

-

-

-

2 (18,2)

Crushed shell + organic solution

2
(Grachevka II, mound 5, border 2; mound 7, embankment)

-

-

-

2 (18,2)

Chamotte + crushed shell + organic solution

2
(Grachevka II, mound 7, embankment; Utevka I, mound 1, border 1)

-

-

-

2 (18,2)

Total

5 (45,5)

6 (54,5)

-

-

-

11 (100)

Orenburg region.

Without impurities

1
(Shumaevo II, mound 7, border 3)

1
(Boldyrevo I, mound 9, embankment)

-

-

-

2(10,5)

Organic solution

-

-

-

-

1
(Baryshnikov, kurg. 4, pogr. 1)

1 (5,3)

Chamotte

-

1
(Efimovka IV, mound 6, border 1)

-

-

-

1 (5,3)

Chamotte + organic solution

5
(Boldyrevo IV, mound 2, border 5; Tamar-Utkul VIII, mound 5, border 1; kurg. 4, pogr. 1; Shumaevo II, kurg. 4, pogr. 2; Pyatiletka, kurg. 5, embankment)

-

5
(Baryshnikov, kurg. 3, pogr. 6; Trudovoe II, kurg. 5, pogr. 1; Skvortsovka, mound 5, border 4; mound 6, border 2; Mustaevo V, mound 8, border 2)

3
(Tamar-Utkul VIII, mound 8, border 1 (2 vessels); Linevka III, mound 1, border 1)

13 (68,4)

Crushed shell + organic solution

-

1
(Boldyrevo I, mound 9, embankment)

-

-

-

1 (5,3)

Dredge + organic solution

-

-

-

-

1
(Izobilnoye I, mound 5, border 1)

1 (5,3)

Total

6 (31,6)

3 (15,8)

5 (26,3)

3 (15,8)

2 (10,5)

19 (100)

Total

11 (36,7)

9 (30)

5 (16,7)

3 (10)

2 (6,6)

30 (100)

page 90
lena sink and organic solution. The beginning of the use of chamotte as an artificial admixture is also recorded, which indicates contacts with population groups that had skills in composing molding masses with chamotte. Ceramics from the Orenburg region reflect a wide mastery of such techniques, and the population of this region has a stable tradition of using clay concentrates and introducing chamotte into the molding mass. Chamotte was made both from one ozheleznenny clay, and from clay concentrates. It should be noted that the recipe presented by one sample is a mixture of silt and non-ironed clay, into which fresh soil and organic solution are introduced (Izobilnoye I, mound 5, border 1). It indicates episodic contacts with non-cultural groups of the population.

Designing and shaping vessels (stages 5-7). There are two programs for designing starters: bottom-capacitive and capacitive-bottom. Flaps (small portions of clay torn from the harness), "cakes" (lumps of clay without a certain shape), short (up to 9 cm long) and long bundles were used as building elements. All elements, except for the "tortillas", were built up along a spiral trajectory. The construction of dishes was carried out both with the use of form models, and by sculptural modeling on a plane. When creating a hollow body, flaps, "cakes", short and long harnesses, and ribbons were used. In the manufacture of all the vessels studied, the elements (except for the tapes) were built up along a trajectory close to a spiral one. Clay belts were built up along a circular path.

Four design systems are identified. In accordance with system I, the filling is made according to the bottom-tank program. The building elements for both the filling and the hollow body were flaps that were built up in a spiral. The shape of the vessel was acquired during the design process, when model forms were used. This technological scheme received the most widespread implementation (Baryshnikov, mound 3; Boddyrevo IV, mound 2; Trudovoe II; Lopatino II; Bereznyaki I; Tamar-Utkul VIII, mound 8; Linevka III; Zhuravlikha I; Grachevka II, mound 7, border 2). Design system II It also assumed the creation of the filling according to the bottom-tank program in a spiral-flap way, and the hollow body-from tapes that were built up along a circular trajectory (Baryshnikov, mound 4). The design system III is characterized by the production of the filling in accordance with the bottom-tank program. The construction elements for the filling were harnesses coiled along a spiral trajectory, and for the hollow body - belts built up along an annular trajectory (Izobilnoye I, mound 5). System IV is the production of the filling in accordance with the tank-bottom program. Nachin and hollow body were created on the basis of flaps, which were built up along a spiral trajectory (Tamar-Utkul VIII, Kurgan. 4; Mustaevo V; Utevka I). Vessels of the classical pit shape were most often manufactured according to design schemes I and IV. The other two technological schemes most likely reflect contacts with non-cultural groups of the population. The predominance of vessels made according to two technological schemes, which fundamentally differ in the programs of making fillings, confirms the above conclusion about the participation of the pit population of two different cultural groups in the addition. At this stage, in contrast to the earlier one, which corresponds to the ceramics of the Repin appearance, the design scheme becomes predominant.

Some of the classic dishes are represented by fragments, the study of which allows us to conclude that they were made by building up small portions of clay (flaps), probably along a spiral trajectory.

Methods of mechanical surface treatment (step 8). The predominant method of processing is simple smoothing; only one vessel was veneered (Linevka III, mound 1, border 1). The main mass of vessels was smoothed with a tool with a soft working part; in some cases, it was possible to identify the material - it was a piece of cloth. The walls of some vessels are smoothed with a combed stamp, resulting in multidirectional "combs", while others are smoothed with a solid object (pebbles). On several vessels there are traces of the use of two smoothing tools: a comb stamp + pebbles, a cloth + pebbles, a wooden scraper + a piece of sheepskin. In this dish, the upper part is treated with a hard object (pebbles).

Giving strength and eliminating moisture permeability of the walls (steps 9, 10). It was produced by heat treatment. In the fracture, almost all vessels have two-and three-layer staining, which indicates a short-term effect of hot temperatures (650°C and above).

The conducted technical and technological analysis of ceramics of the late stage of the pit culture recorded a variety of skills in making dishes at all stages of technology.

Discussion of the results

Drawing on the information obtained for the study of specific historical processes, it is necessary to:

page 91
remember that any pottery technology is a system that has a certain stability. Signs of sustainability are manifestations of repeated reproduction of the same work skills in each new cycle of the production process. The stability of the system is ensured by four factors: the production of familiar (traditional) forms of tableware; the presence of a constant environment of consumers and technical means for making dishes; and the availability of raw materials [Bobrinsky, 1999, pp. 8, 48-49]. As ethnographic data show, the stable state of technology systems indicates the relative isolation from the outside world of the carriers of these systems - potters, their "attachment" to a limited space - the settlement where they worked, and the nearest periphery where their products were distributed. Probably, in ancient times, the connection of residents of individual settlements with the outside world was strictly regulated [Ibid., p. 52]. Since the ceramics studied represent only the burial complexes of collectives whose stationary settlements in the Volga-Ural region are not yet known, and the economic and cultural type is defined by most researchers as mobile cattle breeding [Vasiliev, Kuznetsov, Turetsky, 2000, p. 21], it can be assumed that the pottery system was constantly disrupted under the influence of other cultural groups, as well as due to the need to use different sources of raw materials. This largely explains the diversity in technology that can be traced back to the ceramics of the Yamnaya culture. The skills of designing and shaping are among the substratum ones, i.e. the least susceptible to changes when the stability of pottery systems is disturbed [Bobrinsky, 1999, p. 66-67]. Therefore, the presence of pit culture dishes in the ceramic collection, which embody fundamentally different programs for designing beginnings (bottom-tank and bottom-tank), indicates the formation of the pit population on the basis of at least two different cultural groups.

General features of the pottery of native pit culture bearers. The early stage of culture, represented by Repin ceramics, is characterized by a relative homogeneity of the population, which is indicated primarily by data on the skills of selecting raw materials. Different traditions of composing molding masses indicate both the existence of several related groups that had their own skills in composing molding masses, and contacts with other groups of the population. At least two culturally different groups participated in the formation of the population of the early stage of Yamnaya culture development.

At the next stage of cultural existence, which can be traced back to classical ceramics, the composition of the pit population became more complex as a result of contacts with native speakers of other cultures or the appearance of migrants in the Volga-Urals. It was a long process. While maintaining the tradition of using silt as a feedstock, the skills of selecting silty and geological clays began to spread. Probably, the traditions of using silt for the production of dishes should be attributed to the original pit. They were also used in the design of grave pits [Morgunova and Kravtsov, 1994, p. 42; Bogdanov, 2004, p. 65-66]. Non-ironed clay in the concentrates and the concentrates themselves are evidence that the population has developed skills in selecting and preparing different types of clays as raw materials. The latter are found in representatives of sedentary agricultural crops (Gay, 1986). The acquisition of such skills by carriers of pit culture, mobile pastoralists, should be considered the result of their contacts with the agricultural population.

The traditions of composing molding compounds are also becoming more diverse. In addition to the crushed shell and organic solution, chamotte was introduced en masse into the molding mass. It is quite possible that the use of chamotte reflects the relations of the pit population with the descendants of the local Eneolithic population, whose ceramics contain chamotte [Vasilyeva, 2006, p. 19; Barynkin and Kozin, 1991, p. 104]. In Eneolithic ceramics, as in the potsherd of some vessels of the pit culture, chamotte is represented in a very small concentration. But the presence of chamotte in high concentrations, made from a mixture of clays and also containing chamotte from a mixture of clays, clearly indicates contacts with non-cultural groups of the population, possibly natives of agricultural areas.

Analysis of the features that characterize substrate skills allows us to conclude that the two main design systems (I and IV) are preserved throughout the existence of the yamnaya culture, and therefore, the continuity of the main technological traditions. Over time, groups with different technological traditions, in particular with the traditions of using tapes in the construction of a hollow body, joined the environment of the pit population. According to the results of the technical and technological analysis of ceramics, the territory of the Samara Volga region and the Urals, especially at the late stage of the development of the pit culture, was a kind of" cauldron " in which different groups of the population mixed. One of the manifestations of these processes can be considered the diversity of cultural traditions in pottery.

The problem of forming a pit population. There are two main points of view on it. Proponents of the first tend to believe that the addition occurs-

page 92
It was formed evolutionarily, based on the previous population that left the monuments of the Khvalyn Eneolithic culture [Vasiliev, 1979, p.37; 2004, p. 53-54]. Adherents of the latter point to a chronological gap between the monuments of the Yamnaya and Khvalyn cultures and suggest an "intermittent cultural development" in the steppe Volga region during the Eneolithic-Bronze Age (Barynkin, 1992, p. 22). The technology of manufacturing Eneolithic ceramics and Repin ceramics, which represent the early stage of pit culture, has many similarities: 1) selection of silts and silty clays as raw materials; 2) introduction of mainly crushed (heated) shells and organic solution, sometimes chamotte, into the composition of molding masses; 3) shaping the vessel using molds- models in the design; 4) application of the spiral-flap method; 5) treatment of vessel surfaces by similar methods. This similarity was hardly accidental, so today we can confidently say that the descendants of local Eneolithic collectives took part in the formation of the pit population.

The role of ceramics in the burial rites of the Yamnaya tribes. Burials of the Volga-Ural pit culture, in which ceramics are recorded, make up about 30 % of the total number of burials. Ceramics found in some mounds of mounds can only presumably be associated with a certain burial. Among the burials in which there were ceramics, a significant part is made up of children's burials. This feature is very important, since in general the share of children's burials in pit necropolises is small. The burials of adults, in which ceramics were found, contain the remains of mostly elderly men (see Tables 1, 2). Probably, the presence of clay vessels in the burials of children and elderly men reflects certain patterns of the funeral rite. According to a preliminary analysis, most burials of the pit culture of the Lower Volga region containing ceramics also contain children (Jones-Bley, 1999). A similar feature is traced from the materials of the Eneolithic burial site Khvalynsky I (Agapov, Vasiliev, Pestrikova, 1990, pp. 8-55).

I. F. Kovaleva believes that the Yamnaya society considered children as its least protected part and therefore, sending them to another world, provided them with everything they needed. The researcher notes in general the identity of the main elements of the burial rite of children and adults, which is an indicator of the intergenerational transmission of traditions [1998].

There were two successive models of the social organization of ancient societies. The first one is a system of age groups, where the real age was the criterion for entering. The second one is based on the hierarchy of estate groups, which arises with the beginning of the formation of the right of inheritance [Ibid., p. 71]. It can be assumed that there were two special age groups in the society of Yamnaya culture bearers. The first group consisted of children, probably before the age of initiation, and the second group consisted of elderly men, who performed an important function of transmitting traditions to the younger members of society. Hence the convergence of the status of older men and children, which is manifested in the presence of joint burials and the presence of pottery in them. It should also be noted that the pottery found in the mounds of the mounds served for performing some rites, and some of the vessels found in the burials were intended for ochre, which was apparently used in religious actions. Probably, these ceramic objects marked a certain social status of the deceased, possibly priestly. Thus, we can speak about the ambiguity of ceramics in the funeral rites of the Yamnaya culture tribes.

The study of the technology of making ceramics of the pit culture of the Volga-Ural Region made it possible to introduce a new layer of systematized information into scientific circulation and show the possibilities of applying such studies to discuss specific issues of the history of tribes of the early Bronze Age.

List of literature

Agapov S. A., Vasiliev I. B., Pestrikova V. I. Khvalynsky Eneolithic burial ground. Saratov: Sarat State University Publ., 1990, 160 p. (in Russian)

Barynkin P. P. Eneolite and early bronze of the Northern Caspian region: abstract of the dissertation of the Candidate of Historical Sciences, Moscow, 1992, 26 p.

Barynkin P. P., Kozin E. V. Nekotorye rezul'taty issledovanii II Bolynerakovskaya stoika (o kul'turno-khronologicheskom otnoshenii material'nykh kompleksov pamyatnika) [Some results of studies of the II Bolynerakovskaya site (on the cultural and chronological correlation of material complexes of the monument)]. Samara: Publishing House of the Samara State Pedagogical University. Univ., 1991, pp. 100-108.

Bobrinsky A. A. Goncharstvo Vostochnoi Evropy [Pottery of Eastern Europe]. Sources and methods of study, Moscow: Nauka Publ., 1978, 272 p.

Bobrinsky A. A. Potter's technology as an object of historical and cultural study // Actual problems of studying ancient pottery. Samara: Publishing House of the Samara State Pedagogical University. univ., 1999. - P. 5-109.

Bobrinsky A. A., Vasilyeva I. N. O nekotorykh osobennostei plasticheskogo syr'ya v istorii goncharstva [On some features of plastic raw materials in the history of pottery]. Samara: Samar State Publishing House. ped. Univ., 1998, pp. 193-216.

Bogdanov S. V. The epoch of copper in the steppe Urals. Yekaterinburg: Publishing House of the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 2004, 285 p.

Vasiliev, I. B., The Middle Volga Region in the Early and Middle Bronze Age (Yamnaya and Poltavka tribes), Drev-

page 93
new history of the Volga region. Kuibyshev: Kuibyshev Publishing House, State Pedagogical University. in-ta, 1979. - p. 24-56.

Vasiliev I. B. Nekotorye itogi issledovaniya khvalynskoy eneoliticheskoy kul'tury [Some results of the study of the Khvalyn Eneolithic culture]. Volgograd: Volgograd State University Publ., 2004, pp. 48-58.

Vasiliev I. B., Kuznetsov P. F., Turetsky M. A. Yamnaya i poltavkinskaya kul'tury [Yamnaya and Poltavka cultures]. The Bronze Age. Samara: Samar Publishing House. science. Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 2000, pp. 6-64.

Vasilyeva I. N. On the technology of ceramics of the First Khvalyn Eneolithic burial ground // Questions of archeology of the Volga region. Samara: Publishing House of the Samara State Pedagogical University. un-ta, 2002, issue 2, pp. 15-49.

Vasil'eva I. N. Sravnitel'nyi analiz tekhnologii keramiki Sezzhenskogo I-II Khvalynskikh mogilnikov [Comparative analysis of the technology of ceramics of the Sezzhensk and I-II Khvalynsk burial grounds].

Vasilyeva I. N. Goncharnaya tekhnologiya eneoliticheskogo naseleniya Volgo-Uralya kak istochnik po istorii formirovaniya yamnoy kul'tury [Pottery technology of the Eneolithic population of the Volga-Urals as a source on the history of yamnaya Culture formation]. Orenburg: Publishing House Orenburg, State Pedagogical University. un-ta, 2006, pp. 17-22.

Gei N. A. Tekhnologicheskoe izuchenie keramiki trypolskogo poseleniya Starye Cuconesti [Technological study of ceramics of the Tripoli settlement of Starye Cuconesti]. KSIA, 1986, issue 185, pp. 22-27.

Kovaleva I. F. Mir detstva u yamnykh plemen Pridneprovya [The world of childhood in the Yamny tribes of the Dnieper region]. - Дніпропетровськ: Изд-во Дншропетров. un-ta, 1998, pp. 5-12.

Morgunova N. L., Kravtsov A. Yu. Monuments of ancient pit culture on the Ileka River. Yekaterinburg: Publishing House of the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 1994, 158 p.

Mochalov O. D. Diagnosticheskie priznaki keramiki yamnoy kul'turno-istoricheskoi oblasti [Diagnostic signs of ceramics in the Yamnaya cultural and historical region]. Orenburg: Publishing House Orenburg, State Pedagogical University. un-ta, 2009, pp. 78-86.

Salugina N. P. Tekhnologiya keramiki repinskogo tipa iz pogrebenii drevneyamnoy kul'tury Volgo-Ural'ya [Technology of Repin-type ceramics from burials of the Volga-Ural ancient pit culture].

Salugina N. P. On the method of determining the shell in the composition of ancient ceramics // Sovremennye problemy arkheologii Rossii: mat-ly Vseros [Modern problems of Russian Archeology]. archeol. the congress. Novosibirsk: Publishing House of IAET SB RAS, 2006a. - T. P.-S. 379-382.

Salugina N. P. Tekhnologiya keramiki naseleniya rannego bronzovogo veka Volgo-Ural'ya (po materialam pogrebal'nykh pamyatnikov) [Technology of ceramics of the population of the Early Bronze Age of the Volga-Urals (based on the materials of funeral monuments)]. Orenburg: Publishing House of Orenburg State Pedagogical University. Univ., 20066, pp. 76-80.

Salugina N. P. Ceramics in the funeral rituals of the population of the early Bronze Age of the Volga-Ural region // Tr. II (XVHI) Vseros. archeol. Congress in Suzdal, Moscow: PA RAS Publishing House, 2008, pp. 339-341.

Trifonov V. A. Repinskaya culture and the process of adding up the yamnaya cultural and historical community // Antiquities of the Volga-Don Steppes in the Eastern European Bronze Age system. - Volgograd: Volgograd State University Publ., 1996, pp. 3-7.

Turetskiy M. A. Problemy sostoyeniya srednevolzhsko-priuralskogo varianta yamnoi kul'tury [Problems of addition of the Middle Volga-Ural variant of the yamnaya culture]. Orenburg: Orenburg Publishing House. state ped. Un-ta, 1999, Issue III, pp. 6-11.

Jones-Bley K. Early and Middle Bronze Age Pottery from the Volga-Don Steppe: A catalogue of pottery from the Volgograd Regional History and Cultural Museum. - Oxford, 1999. - 151 p. - (BAR International Series, 796).

The article was submitted to the Editorial Board on 13.01.10.

page 94

© elib.tr

Permanent link to this publication:

https://elib.tr/m/articles/view/RESULTS-OF-STUDYING-THE-TECHNOLOGY-OF-MAKING-CERAMICS-OF-THE-VOLGA-URAL-PIT-CULTURE-AS-A-SOURCE-OF-POPULATION-HISTORY