According to Dagestani researchers, the long process of Islamization of Dagestan's state formations in Kubachi was completed by the end of the 13th century. They attribute the rise of the medieval art of Kubachi to the establishment of Islam. In the late 13th and early 14th centuries, stone reliefs were created here to adorn monumental structures. Magnificent images of secular scenes with figures of people in costumes of North Caucasian, Polovtsian and Mongolian nobility, as well as real and fantastic animals have appeared in the Islamic cultural space. Neutralize the influence of Islam and give an impetus to secular multicultural art could be the Mongol Empire, whose policy was characterized by tolerance towards any religious and cultural phenomena. The study of images and plots of Kubachin reliefs in the cultural and political space of the Mongol Empire allows us to reveal the semantics of plots. The scenes on the stone reliefs reflect not the regional, but the imperial scale of the situation in which the medieval Zirikhgeran, known today by the Turkic name Kubachi, was involved.

Keywords: Mongol Empire, North Caucasus, Dagestan, Kubachi, Islam, stone reliefs, Muslim art, Sharia prohibitions, costume, medieval fabrics, fantastic animals, Mongols, Polovtsians, semantics, foreign cultural images, imperial.

In the middle of the sixth century, Shahanshah Khosrow II confirmed the ruler of Zirikhgeranin his domain. By this time, the first mention of the state of "chainsmiths", or "chainsmiths", known today under the Turkic name Kubachi (Dagestan, North Caucasus) dates back (Figure 1). Dagestani researchers believe that the long process of Islamization of Dagestan's state formations in Zirikhgeran was completed by the end of the XIII century. They attribute the rise of the medieval art of Kubachi to the establishment of Islam. "Penetration of villages. Kubachi, together with the Islam of Arab-Muslim culture, significantly enriched its traditional art, "writes M. M. Mammaev," gave a new impetus to its further improvement and determined for many centuries the path of historical development of Kubachi art in the general direction of the development of artistic culture and art in the Muslim East " [2005a, p. 164].

Today Kubachi is known as a center of original jewelry art. The artistic masterpieces of Kubachi fine art also include products with ornamental stone carvings. In the late 13th and early 14th centuries, stone reliefs were created here to adorn the monumental structures of Zirikhgeran. Images of secular scenes with figures of people in costumes of the North Caucasian (Fig. 2), Polovtsian (Fig. 3) and Mongolian (Fig. 4) nobility, as well as real and fantastic animals, have appeared in the Islamic cultural space.

An analysis of the historiography of the issue of Kubachin reliefs allows us to state that until recently, no convincing justifications for the ethnocultural affiliation of monuments and the chronology of their existence were put forward, and no explanations were offered for the appearance of secular scenes and living creatures in the Islamic cultural context. Searching for an answer to

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Fig. 1. Kubachi village. 2006 Photo by A. Belinsky.

2. Relief with a cheetah training scene. (The archer is depicted in the medieval costume of the North Caucasian nobility). State Hermitage Museum (inv. N TP-96). Photo by K. V. Sinyavsky, S. V. Suetova, and L. G. Heifetz.

3. A stone slab with the image of the Polovtsian oath on a dog. The State Hermitage Museum (inv. N TP-93) [Ivanov, 2008, p. 120, cat. 89].

the question of the ethno-cultural environment in which the monuments were created inevitably ended with the unconditional recognition of its local character. Most researchers a priori considered the Kubachi stone reliefs as works of local art, which is more or less influenced by the Arab-Muslim culture or the culture of Iran. But, recognizing the Dagestani reliefs of the XIV century as an isolated cultural phenomenon.

4. Relief with the image of an equestrian Mongol. Dagestan State United Historical and Architectural Museum named after A. A. Takho-Year I (N KP 6602, inv. N 50). Photo by A. Belinsky.

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However, we will face insurmountable difficulties, since the reliefs show Kipchaks and Mongols along with Dagestanis. The centuries-old experience of Dagestani stone-cutting masters and the content of the subjects of carved stones are different phenomena. The question of where the boundaries between borrowing and the local folk art tradition are drawn is relevant. The appropriation and comprehension of foreign, non-cultural and non-ethnic images do not detract from the high professional dignity of local craftsmen.

An analysis of historiography shows that cultural attribution of Kubachi reliefs was carried out by researchers with the involvement of artistic and pictorial parallels in the monuments of the local and Iranian circles [Dode, 2010, pp. 16-31]. I suggested changing the research paradigm and establishing the ethno-cultural identity of the characters represented in the reliefs based on the analysis of their costumes. The images were compared with other iconographic sources, written data and costumes found in medieval necropolises of the North Caucasus and funerary monuments of the Yuan Dynasty. Similarly, a comparative analysis of ornamental motifs on Kubachi stones and silk fabrics from funerary monuments of the Mongol Empire was carried out. A new view of the situation allowed us to clarify the chronology of the studied group of monuments and assign them to the period of Mongol rule (the last third of the XIII-early XIV centuries), when a significant part of Dagestan was under the control of the Ilkhanate [Ibid.].

Some scholars attributed the presence of images of living beings and secular scenes on reliefs to the creation of the latter in the "pre - Islamic" period of the Kubachi culture [Orbeli, 1938, p.317], others-to creative overcoming or reinterpretation of the prohibitions of Islam [Mammaev, 2005a, p. 178]. Today, there is no single view on the time of creation of monuments: reliefs are attributed to the Seljuk period (XI-XII centuries), and to the end of the XIV-XV centuries. But both of these definitions inevitably come into conflict with the images on the Kubachi stones of Mongols in characteristic costumes, as well as ornamental motifs that have direct correspondences in the decoration of silk fabrics found in closed archaeological complexes of the late XIII-XIV centuries. [Daudet, 2010, pp. 74-99]. Images of Mongols on Kubachi reliefs could not have appeared earlier than the 13th century. It is hard to imagine that reliefs with figures of Mongols and Polovtsians in costumes, transmitted with ethnographic details, were used in the architectural decoration of buildings after the disappearance of these peoples from the historical arena of the North Caucasus. Reliefs with images of Mongols and ornamental motifs of the Mongol era-monuments of the same time and one cultural circle, they decorated the architectural complex created in Kubachi in the last third of the XIII-early XIV centuries.

The question of the cultural context of creating Kubachi reliefs with images of living creatures and secular scenes is the subject of this paper. As pointed out, the researchers tried to justify images of living beings supposedly created in an Islamic environment. It seems that the question should be put as follows: are the images on the Kubachi stones related to the Islamic culture of medieval Zirikhgeran?

A great contribution to the identification and study of Kubachi monuments was made by the Dagestani historian and art critic M. M. Mammaev [1989, 2005a, b; Mammaev, Mirkiev, Shakhaev, 2007]. In the monograph " Zirikhgeran-Kubachi. Essays on History and Culture "examines stone sculpture in the light of the possible influence of Islam on medieval Dagestan art and comes to the following conclusion:" Despite the Sharia prohibitions, disapproval and restrictions of Islam in the depiction of living beings, in medieval Dagestan, as in other Islamic countries, ministers of worship, theologians and recognized religious authorities with a high degree of respect for the image of with certain reservations, and subject to certain rules and regulations, it was considered possible to present the works of the Almighty in an artistic way" [2005b, p. 184]. The loyalty of religious authorities was noted by M. M. Mammaev, probably in order to explain the appearance of a magnificent series of secular scenes on reliefs. However, the good will of theologians who did not interfere with the work of stone carvers, as well as the thesis about the Islamic nature of the art of medieval Dagestan, in my opinion, has nothing to do with it. It is important to find out what force could neutralize the influence of Islam and give a boost to secular multicultural art? Such potential was possessed by the Mongol Empire, whose policy was characterized by tolerance towards any religious and cultural phenomena. Kubachin reliefs of the early 14th century should be considered in the imperial cultural context. Dagestan, occupying a border position between the possessions of the Hulaguids and the Jochids, for almost a century (from the second half of the XIII to the middle of the XIV century) was included in the sphere of political rivalry between these dynasties. In the last third of the 13th and early 14th centuries, a significant part of Dagestan was under the control of the Ilkhanate.

Consideration of images and plots of Kubachi reliefs in the cultural and political space of the Mongol Empire allows us to reveal the semantics of plots, which in other contexts does not look so convincing. Scenes of sporting events, taming of leopards, swearing on a slashed dog reflect not regional, but imperial mas-

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5. A stone tympanum with a scene of a lion torturing a wild boar. The State Hermitage Museum (inv. N TP-150) [Ivanov, 2008, p. 124, cat. 95].

description of the situation in which medieval Zirikhgeran was involved (Daudet, 2010).

The Mongolian attribution of this group of monuments removes the question of the "paradoxical nature" of depicting living beings, and moreover, unclean animals in the system of Muslim prohibitions, as some researchers have pointed out. "Among the Kubachi stone reliefs of the XIV-XV centuries-monuments of Islamic art-there are many that are carved with images of living beings - animals, people or birds, along with Arabic inscriptions (or imitations of them) and plant ornaments... <...> At the same time, the visual motif is the ideological center of the entire composition and the main plot. Such a monument is, for example, the tympanum of a two-span window of the XIV century, now kept in the State Hermitage Museum, with the image of a lion attacking a boar... <...> An epigraphic ornament is placed in the semicircle of the tympanum - an imitation of an Arabic inscription. The tympanum is made, of course, in a Muslim environment, but, paradoxically, the image placed next to the Arabic letters does not agree with the Muslim faith, since the pig (boar) it was considered an unclean animal (haram) and touching it, and even more so eating pork, was considered as a desecration of the believer " (Mamaev, 2005a, p. 179).

The question arises, what does the scene of a lion torturing a wild boar have to do with Muslim food bans? Of course, nothing. Canonical subjects in folk art were distributed through other, parallel channels than Muslim ones. There is no need to find some compromise and coordinate the image of the torment scene on the tympanum (Figure 5) with the "Muslim faith". However, the situation is not as simple as it may seem at first glance. Moreover, it allows us to see fundamental differences in research attitudes.

For the first time, I. A. Orbeli came to the conclusion that the Kubachi monuments were created in a non-Muslim environment: "...both the cauldrons and reliefs were made in an environment that professed either Shiite or Christian religion and only later adopted Sunniism. But no matter how liberal the Shiite provisions are in this regard, images of animals that are" unclean " from the point of view of Islam are unacceptable and improbable in the Shiite environment. Thus, we must assume that such monuments... they originated in a non-Muslim environment, although they used the Arabic script" [1938, p. 317].

Obviously, not all researchers are ready to update their view of the situation so radically. M. M. Mammaev firmly believes that the Kubachin reliefs were created in an Islamic environment. To justify his position, he resorts to dubious arguments. "Numerous works of medieval decorative and applied art of the XIV-XV centuries not only in Kubachi, but also in other villages - monuments of stone and wood carving, artistic bronze casting with pictorial subjects, often in combination with various ornamental compositions and epigraphy-were created specifically in the Muslim environment, since Islam in Kubachi and neighboring villages is considered as an official religion. ideology was established quite thoroughly at the end of the XIII-very beginning of the XIV century. Consequently, numerous monuments of the art of stone and wood carving, artistic bronze casting with pictorial themes, dating back to the XIV-XV centuries, were created in the Muslim environment. Therefore, we can assume that until the end of the XV - beginning of the XVI century, Islam did not have any noticeable negative impact on the development of folk art in rural areas. Kubachi, and indeed the entire mountainous Dagestan as a whole. Even on the Kubachinsky stone tympanum of 1404, now stored in the Dagestan United Historical and Architectural Museum, and originally located above the entrance to the madrasah building, along with an Arabic inscription containing the date of its construction in 807 AD (1404-1405), there are relief profile images of two lions (their heads were later beaten off). It can be assumed that these images were cut out either in defiance of the Islamic ban, or, more likely, such a ban was not understood literally" [2005a, p. 178].

So, there is an opinion that the tympanum with the image of the scene of torment, as well as reliefs with figures of wrestlers, deer, horsemen, " as well as friezes and other details of the architectural decor, on which masterfully carved ornamental interpreted images-

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monuments of Islamic art. M. M. Mammaev explains the presence of images of living beings in the medieval art of Kubachi as "free-thinking and deviation from the precepts of orthodox Islam" [Ibid.]. The thesis about the freethinking of masters raises doubts. Why would a stonecutter come into conflict with a religious group? It's not about the masters at all. The situation was determined by customers who ignored the precepts of Islam, because they were guided by other cultural standards. We are talking about representatives of a social group embedded in Mongolian power structures. Consider the arguments of our opponents.

Based on the analysis of hadiths, O. G. Bolshakov convincingly showed that the ban on the depiction of living beings in Muslim art was finally formulated at the end of the XI century. As the researcher notes, the ban concerned images of living beings on wall paintings, carpets and fabrics in the form of curtains or wall decorations that could be used to worship the images reproduced on them; only the use of household objects with similar images was allowed, so in the XII-XIII centuries. there was a flourishing of " those types of subject painting, which even in the for theologians of that time, the following were considered acceptable: book miniatures, paintings on ceramics (chandelier and minai) and enamel paintings on glass. At the same time, wall paintings are gradually disappearing (with the exception of Mongolian possessions, where the attitude to painting and sculpture was different)" [1969, pp. 150-152]. The last remark is directly related to the subject of our research - the Kubachinsky monuments with images of people and animals.

To develop the ideas of O. G. Bolshakov, let us turn to the study of V. N. Nastich, which shows the clash of cultures in dynamics (for the analysis of cultural phenomena in Kubachi as a static model, undertaken by M. M. Mamaev, was unsuccessful). V. N. Nastich examines the relationship between the Turkic world and Islam. It establishes the interaction of three groups-masters, Muslim theologians and the Turkic nobility, who acted as the customer of certain works. Replacing the Turkic nobility with the Mongol nobility, we can assume a similar situation for the Kubachi of the early 14th century. "At the turn of the first and second millennia of our era, the vast expanses of Central and Western Asia, which by that time had already firmly entered the orbit of Islam, unexpectedly and by historical standards almost instantly absorbed a new ethno-cultural component - the Turkic nomadic tribes that poured in several waves from the Eurasian steppe belt stretching from the Yenisei to the Dnieper. Having quickly settled into a new social environment for them, they mostly converted to Islam, and their military-feudal elite came to power in various ways in many cities and regions of the caliphate, by which time they had already become Muslim. finally lost its short-lived and fragile political unity. The religious and ideological sensitivity of neophytes was successfully combined in the Turks with an equally zealous commitment to their traditional cultural values, including centuries - old visual art-both ritual and craft-applied. Judging by the preserved historical monuments of that era, the adoption of the faith of Muhammad by Turkic artists did not immediately force them to abandon their usual aesthetic views and tastes, and they decorated their lives with various anthropomorphic and zoomorphic subjects for a long time. It is therefore more than likely that it was the pictorial freedom of the "sons of Turan", which became a new reality in the Islamic society of the XI-XIII centuries, that was the drop that filled the cup of irritation of conservative theologians; according to well-known data, one of the most powerful waves of dogmatic prohibitions in Sunni theology belongs to this time " [Nastich, 1990, p. 133].

Further, V. N. Nastich shows that theological prohibitions, as a rule, are secondary to the fait accompli: "The coin material, as well as data from other sources, definitely indicates that these restrictions and prohibitions, which initially arose (according to most researchers) in connection with countering actual or potential idolatry, eventually acquired a new meaning. the more general nature, their rational motivation, disappeared after the problem that gave rise to it, and the new, more abstract justifications for such prohibitions, apparently, were not so convincing as to extinguish the creative impulses of Muslim musavvirs once and for all, since neither in any of the Sunni interpretations nor in Shiism did it reach the development of strict laws. legal and especially procedural rules for the implementation of these prohibitions, which for the most part seem to have had a moral and ethical rather than legal status. In addition, it seems indisputable that all new attempts at theological restrictions have always been secondary to the very facts of artistic creation, appearing after them, and not vice versa, and this is another reason why they have often been ineffective; in other words, prohibitions have appeared mainly because there were always those who wanted to violate them" [1992, pp. 141-142].

As for the images of the Mongols in the Kubachi reliefs, they are undoubtedly an element of imperial culture. And as part of imperial culture

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Fig. 6. Relief with the image of a wild boar. Dagestan Museum of Fine Arts named after P. S. Gamzatova (N KP 2738, inv. N 185). Photo by A. Belinsky.

they were outside the scope of theological prohibitions. According to Rashid al-din, Ilkhan Argun "built a temple and painted his own images on its walls" [1946, p.218]. We are talking about a Buddhist temple in one of the capital cities of the Ilkhanate. The destruction of Buddhist temples, which had wall images of Mongol rulers, followed the adoption of Islam by Ilkhan Ghazan in 1295. Written sources indicate the use of Central Asian elements in the architectural practice of the Tabriz art zone. As the 13th-century Iranian travel poet Nizari pointed out, the architectural decoration of the Ilkhan Hulagu castle on Shahu Tell Island included images of 30 dragons (Bayburdi, 1966, p.224). In Mongolian imperial art, the dragon was a symbol of power. In the middle of the pool of the Alishah Mosque in Tabriz, the masters installed four figures of lions spewing water (Giyasi, 1983, p. 65). A vivid example of the flourishing of book miniatures is the illustrated cosmography "Wonders of Creation and Curiosities of Existence" by Zakariya al-Qazvini (1203-1283). The manuscript of this essay from the collection of the Institute of Oriental Manuscripts of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Saint Petersburg) contains 449 miniatures: planets, constellations, angels, djinn, fantastic creatures of the Chinese Sea and the Indian Ocean, marine fish, plants, animals( including the wild pig - khinzir), birds, reptiles and half-humans-half-animals [Moor and Rezvan, 2002]. Zakariya al-Qazvini dedicated his cosmography to the famous ruler of Baghdad under the Mongols ‘Ata Malik Juvaini (Krachkovsky, 1957, p.360).

These examples are enough to reject the thesis about the "freethinking" of the masters. We should talk about a new cultural paradigm. In practice, novelty meant a return to ancient stories. Such an archaic plot for Iranian art was the scenes of a predator tormenting its prey, and one of the most popular themes was the king's hunt for wild boars (Trever and Lukonin, 1987, p. 108). In this context, we should consider the depiction of wild boars on the Kubachi reliefs of the Mongolian cycle (Fig. 6). Scenes of the king hunting wild boars are found on Iranian miniatures of the early XIV century (Lukens and Carboni, 1994, p. 76-77, fig.22, 23). This particular plot is reproduced on the Kubachi relief from the Kelikyan collection (Fig. 7).

On the Kubachinsky stone reliefs there are images of real and fantastic animals. Cheetahs, leopards, lions, griffins, eagles were the favorite images of heraldic compositions of the feudal era. They were depicted not only by carvers of Dagestan, but also by craftsmen who created stone reliefs of cathedrals of the Vladimir-Suzdal land. N. N. Voronin, a researcher of the architecture of North-Eastern Russia, noted that "the whole world of animals and monsters present on the walls of the Dmitrov Cathedral can hardly be connected with any local roots in literature or in the visual arts. This world of images of medieval bookishness, hardly accessible to the understanding of any broad social strata - images associated with precious objects of applied art and foreign fabrics, which also existed only in the highest feudal environment and filled the treasury of temples " [1961, p. 433].

7. Relief frieze with a scene of wild boar hunting. Collection of D. K. Kelikyan, New York (according to: [Salmon, 1943, fig. 5]).

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In the ornamentation of Kubachi reliefs, the figures of leopards, dragons, griffins, phoenixes and sphinxes are also not associated with local mythological representations. The source of their appearance in the stone decor was brought objects of decorative and applied art: fabrics, mirrors, and glass vessels [Daudet, 2010, pp. 73-99].

Mountainous Dagestan of the 13th-14th centuries is usually considered as an Islamic territory, but it does not take into account the fact that it was part of the cultural and political area of the Mongol Empire. The Mongol presence in Muslim Iran determined the secular nature of imperial fine art. For Dagestan, we can only assume such an influence, but this assumption removes the question of the paradoxical nature of the plot scenes created in the Muslim environment. The imperial environment was crucial. From this point of view, the group of Kubachinsky monuments with Mongolian symbols that interests us looks quite natural. Masters were guided by the tastes and preferences of representatives of power structures, while for the latter, the imperial style was significant. The Mongols lifted the prohibitions imposed by the former elites, and this was reflected in the work of folk masters.

The recognition that the Kubachi monuments were created in the cultural context of the Mongol Empire removes the alleged paradox of the situation when, contrary to Muslim norms, living beings were depicted in official art. The development of secular, multicultural art became possible precisely because Kubachi was included in the political and cultural space of the Mongol Empire, whose policy was characterized by tolerance towards any religious and cultural phenomena.

In conclusion, let us draw attention to the following important fact, which contradicts all the arguments about the "freedom of thought of masters" and "deviation from the prescriptions of orthodox Islam regarding images of living beings" [Mammaev, 2005a, p.178]: in many reliefs, the heads of people and animals are deliberately damaged. From the point of view of V. I. Markovin and R. M. Munchaev, "many reliefs are damaged, since in the XIV century devout Muslims, having learned about the prohibition of the Koran to depict living beings, beat off their heads" [2003, p. 314]. M. M. Mammaev believes that the damage to the reliefs occurred after the XV century."..It seems certain that the bulk of the monuments of medieval stone-cutting art Kubachi with images of living creatures were damaged later than the XV century. Animals, people and birds were deliberately beaten off their heads: according to the prescriptions of Islam, most clearly formulated by the largest Muslim theologian Abu Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazali (1058-1111) and other leading scholars. to get rid of the image of a living creature, it is enough to spoil its face " [2005a, p. 178]. A natural question is: why did Islam's favor in depicting living beings when creating reliefs, according to M. M. Mammaev, suddenly change to anger, and as a result, the figures of people and animals on the Kubachi reliefs were disfigured? Obviously, the change in the attitude of Islam to visual monuments has nothing to do with this. Apparently, we should be talking about a shift again

Figure 8. House in Kubachi. Autumn 2008 Photo by A. Belinsky.

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cultural paradigms. Most likely, the triumph of Islam in Kubachi should be associated with the end of the Mongol rule. Religious tolerance and cultural pluralism of the Mongol Empire were replaced by the norms of orthodox Islam. The deliberate destruction of the reliefs may be an Islamic reaction to the Mongol heritage. The ideologues of this action were most likely Islamic theologians. However, the exact dates of its implementation are unknown. It is not known how the monuments were destroyed. It is not clear whether the heads of living creatures on the images were destroyed first, and then buildings decorated with reliefs, or, conversely, at the first stage of the campaign, palace buildings were dismantled and then the heads of characters on reliefs were destroyed.

It is obvious that the carvings of the subjects were created by order of a certain social group-representatives of the Mongolian nobility of the Ilkhanate. The destroyers of the Kubachi reliefs were religious Muslim ideologues, whose interests did not correspond to the cultural attitudes of the customers. However, it is impossible to answer unequivocally when and why the Kubachinsky monuments were disfigured.

The local population, being a witness of the historical drama, preserved the images of Kubachi reliefs and continued to use them in their art. So, in the images of animals on the silver products of modern Kubachin masters, replicas of images of animals once carved on Kubachin stones can be guessed. And reliefs with images of animals are still preserved in the walls of Kubachi houses today (Fig. 8).

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The article was submitted to the Editorial Board on 04.04.11.

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