This problem has not previously been the subject of special study, although some aspects of it, for example, Russia's struggle against smuggling and the slave trade in the North-West Caucasus in 1825-1864. [Chirg, 1987], were reflected in historical studies.

The North-West Caucasus, which was given the historical name "Circassia", due to its geographical location occupied an important strategic place in the region. Its borders stretched from the Black Sea coast in the west to the central part of the northern slope of the Caucasus Range in the east. The Black Sea coast connected the Northwestern Caucasus with the Ottoman Empire. Since the Black Sea, due to historical circumstances, was for a long time the exclusive sphere of influence of Turkey, this also applied to the Caucasian coast. The sea was an important economic zone within which coasting was carried out. The main transit point for the Circassian coast was Trebizond. Constantinople played the role of intermediary between the Black Sea and the rest of the world.

The main occupation of the Circassian population was agriculture [Istoriya narodov..., 1988, p. 65]. They were engaged in tobacco cultivation, and sericulture developed on the Black Sea coast. Cattle breeding was an important branch of agricultural production in Circassia (Khan-Giray, 1972, p. 258). Much attention was paid to horse breeding, in the first half of the XIX century there were several stud farms, the most famous of which were Shopok, Tram, Yesesh, Loo, and Beckan (Philipson, 1885, p. 103). Circassia supplied horses to Turkey. So, in 1797, the Turks purchased a large batch of horses sent to Anatolia and Rumelia [GAKK, f. 249, op. 1, St. 45, d. 352, l. 18].

A significant development was achieved by the craft, which existed mainly in the form of home production. Artisans served the existing branches of the economy, provided the population with weapons. A certain part of the products was produced for sale outside Circassia. These were mainly items of jewelry production [Istoriya narodov..., 1988, p. 73]. Due to the dominance of subsistence farming, as well as the weak differentiation of handicrafts, internal trade in Circassia was poorly developed, and there was no own monetary system.

Foreign trade, on the contrary, developed successfully. The population of the North-West Caucasus needed a number of goods that it either did not produce at all, or produced in insufficient quantity and low quality. According to the end of the Khush century, the value of goods imported to Circassia reached annually 834,630 rubles in silver. Exports were estimated at approximately the same amount [Klingen, 1897, p. 62]. The Circassians, in addition to Russia, actively traded with Turkey, Greece, and England [Pisarev,

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1940, p. 115]. The main trading partner of Circassia from the XVI century to the first half of the XIX century was Turkey. According to V. S. Shamrai, " the ports of Anatolia from Batum to Sinop have long had trade relations with the eastern shores of the Black Sea. This trade, as the most profitable, turned all the capital of the Anatolian merchants " [Shamray, 1901, p. 460].

The Port successfully used trade in Circassia to spread its influence. According to N. N. Raevsky, "the power of the Turkish ruler consisted in the influence that trade gave him" [Raevsky Archive, 1910, p. 339]. V. S. Shamray cites data indicating the wide scope of Adyghe-Turkish trade. As an example, he cites the trade turnover that took place through Anapa before 1827, i.e. before the beginning of the next Russo-Turkish war. In the vicinity of Anapa, there were 60 villages where merchants lived [Archive of the Rayevskys, 1910, p. 340]. 55 thousand quarters of bread, wheat, rye, barley, and oats were exported annually from Circassia. The subject of export was leather (25-30 thousand skins), hides, wax, honey, oil and other products. Very lucrative items were the sale of timber and slaves. Trade was carried out mainly by barter. Money was rarely used and was of a nominal nature. There was a circulation of Turkish coins. The Russian silver ruble, well known to the local population, was called the Somme. Other monetary units were little known.

The main trading points were Anapa, Sudzhuk-Kale, Tuapse. The route to Tuapse from the inner part of Circassia passed through the Tubsky pass. A road from Kabarda ran along the left bank of the Kuban River to Anapa and Sudzhuk-Kale (AKAK, vol. VII, 1878, p. 891). In addition to these places, the exchange was carried out at the mouths of rivers that had convenient piers. Such points were Mezyba, Pshada, Vulana, Dzhubga, Nechepsugo, Psezuapse, Shakhe, Sochi, Mzympa. In general, Turkish merchants visited up to 60 wharves on the territory of Circassia and Abkhazia [GAKK, f. 260, op. 1, d. 39, l. 9 vol.; RGVIA, f. VUA, d. 6247, l. 8 vol.; d. 6332, l. 4 - 5]. In places where constant trade was conducted, Turkish merchants built shops, coffee shops, and warehouses on the shore [GAKK, f. 261, op. 1, d. 319, l. 78, 101]. For example, in Sujuk-Kale before 1834 there were up to 150 different commercial establishments.

Usually, merchants paid a fee for the cargo brought to the residents of the nearest area. The value of the duty was determined by the volume of imported goods (Bell, 1840, p. 179). All the product produced in Circassia got to the coast in various ways, where it was loaded onto ships. Some of the goods were brought by the manufacturers themselves. The other was delivered by merchants who lived in the mountains and were engaged in buying up goods and transporting them to the coast [Kavkazskiy sbornik, 1912, p. 101]. The inhabitants of the coast were intermediaries between the Kuban population and Turkish merchants.

The main points where Turkey traded with the eastern coast of the Black Sea were Trebizond, Sinop, Samsun, Kuzmuz, etc. The most important role was played by Trebizond, which is especially closely connected with Circassia [AKAK, vol. XII, 1904, p. 568]. Goods prepared for the North-West Caucasus were stored in the city.

From Turkey and Europe, weapons, gunpowder, lead, sulfur, metals were imported to Circassia [AII, f. 2, folder 10, d. 1, l. 102], luxury goods, spices [AVPRI, f. Embassy in Constantinople, 1830, op. 517/1, d. 452/2, l. 151], fabrics, forged chests, copper dishes, mirrors, coffee, tea [RGVIA, f. 482, d. 127, l. 11; GAKK, f. 260, op. 1, d. 88, l. 6-7; Karlhof, 1860, p. 530]. Until the second half of the 19th century, the British exported varieties of valuable tree species (boxwood, yew, beech, and walnut) from Circassia to Europe (Klingen, 1897, pp. 3, 57, 58). Since the 1930s, up to 200 vessels with local goods - products of animal husbandry, beekeeping, agriculture, and hunting-sailed from Circassia to England [Ocherki..., 1957, p. 298; RGVIA, f. 482, d. 127, l. 11, 12 vol.]. Carefully finished edged weapons were a success. According to the ideas of the British,

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Circassia was the richest region with extensive trade opportunities [Ocherki..., 1957, p. 299].

Ottoman merchants mostly served as intermediaries. Most of the imported goods were made in England. Goods were brought to Turkey, loaded on small vessels and sent to Circassia. Merchant ships also delivered correspondence.

After the Peace of Adrianople (1829), trade for Turkey became one of the means of exerting political influence on the Adyghe tribes. Under the guise of traders, a large number of Turkish agents arrived in the North-West Caucasus, weapons and ammunition were delivered. So, from May 20 to June 4, 1831, Russian military vessels detained five merchant ships under the flags of Turkey, England, Austria, and the Ionian Islands. The ships were engaged in the transportation of passengers and cargo: "On May 25, the brig Orpheus at the height of Suchami detained the two-masted ship Adolfo sailing to Ardan under the English flag, under the command of skipper Luigi Cime, a team of 14 people. Turkish passengers: 38 men, 23 women, 6 children of both sexes. Cargo: salt, iron and miscellaneous goods belonging to passengers. The ban on trade with the Highlanders was not announced to them. During the inspection, a weapon was found, for the right to own which, for his own protection, the skipper presented legal documents." Some skippers refused to obey orders and follow warships to places of quarantine and customs control" [AVPRI, F. Embassy in Constantinople, op. 517/1, d. 320, l. 30-31].

The delivery of weapons to the territory of the North-West Caucasus provoked protest from the Russian government, which, after the conclusion of the Peace of Adrianople, sought to fully control the situation on the eastern coast of the Black Sea. In order to stop secret trading on the east coast, it was decided to carry out trade in those points where customs and quarantine institutions were established by Russia from April 1, 1832. If foreign vessels were found in places where such facilities were not available, they were ordered to be confiscated. The Turkish Government and representatives of foreign Powers staying in Constantinople were notified of the issuance of this decree. The pasha of Trebizond was specially notified- "in order to avoid inappropriate complaints in the future - to invite seraskir in order to notify all those engaged in maritime trade in the area under his control" [AVPRI, f. Embassy in Constantinople, 1831, op. 517/1, d. 320, l. 378-379]. He was personally handed a letter in the original and translated form with a demand to increase vigilance and prevent any commerce and communication between the inhabitants of the Anatolian coast and Circassia. At the same time, the Pasha of Trebizond expressed deep understanding and promised that the residents of his pashalyk would act in accordance with the requirements presented [AVPRI, F. Embassy in Constantinople, op. 517/1, d. 1511, l. 61-62 vol.].

The conclusion of the Russo-Turkish treaty of Unkiyar Iskelessi in 1833 for a period of eight years contributed to the strengthening of Russia's influence in Turkey. This gave the right to count on the fact that Russia's demands to comply with the concluded Russian-Turkish treaties would be taken into account by the Turkish government. But the situation was complicated. Trebizond played an important role in the Black Sea trade, being one of the main links between the North-Western Caucasus and Constantinople, and through the Ottoman Empire - with the rest of the world. For various reasons, many people from the Caucasus settled in this transit point, who willingly or unwittingly fell into the sphere of Turkish influence. The Russian Government also recognized the need to have as complete information as possible about the developments in Trebizond. By the decision of the Vice-Chancellor, approved personally by the Emperor of Russia, an agency was established in Trebizond to oversee the population of the newly conquered territories.-

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stranded from Anapa to Redoubt-Calais, collect information about the military preparations of the Ports [AVPRI, F. Turkish table, op. 502a, d. 4504, l. 1 vol. - 2].

Representatives of the Turkish administration assured the employees of the consulate of the friendship, the desire to cooperate, the favor that exists, fortunately, "between two august rulers" [AVPRI, f. Embassy in Constantinople, op. 517/1, d. 1511, l. 130 vol.]. At the same time, it was stated that neither travelers nor boats would go to Circassia and that the sale of gunpowder will not be allowed for five months, with the exception of some small retail sales. Those who return from the coast of Circassia will be immediately arrested and transferred to the authorities [AVPRI, F. Embassy in Constantinople, op. 517/1, d. 1511, l. 82-82 vol.]. At the insistence of the Russian Consulate in Constantinople, the Porte in March 1837 instructed the Pasha of Trebizond to prohibit Turkish subjects from trading with the Caucasus [RGVIA, f. VUA, 6335, l. 1].

The real politics of the Port looked very different. After the establishment of Russian cruising on the Black Sea coast, goods and weapons were secretly delivered on small vessels. The entire coast of Anatolia served as wharves, while Trebizond was a place of wholesale arms sales. All this was transported to the North-Western Caucasus. Thus, in June 1837, two Englishmen, Bell and Longworth, bought 10 thousand piastres ' worth of gunpowder from a merchant in Trebizond, a certain Buruk-Oglu Ibrahim, and then transported it by boat to Circassia [AVPRI, F. Embassy in Constantinople, op. 517/1, d. 1511, l. 81-81 about.].

The example of the Turk Bekir's ship heading for Anapa is illustrative. The attitude of the Turkish government to the incident was described by the Russian consul as "condescending banality" [AVPRI, F. Embassy in Constantinople, op. 517/1, d. 1511, d. 114 vol.]. During a meeting with a representative of Russia about the detention of Bekir, the ruler of Trebizond, Osman Pasha, said that those who trade with Circassia cannot count on the mercy of the government and will be arrested. In fact, the same Bekir regularly made voyages, now obtaining trade permits from the ruler of Sinop, Oglu Huseyn Bey, bypassing the Trebizond authorities [AVPRI, F. Embassy in Constantinople, op. 517/1, d. 1511, l. 114-118 vol.].

Some of the ships anchored in small remote bays of Anatolia. After the protests of Russian representatives, the Turkish authorities, on the orders of the Pasha of Trebizond, arrested some of the ships, confiscating the cargo in favor of the state. Similar measures were taken by the governor of Sinop. But trade continued to develop and had a wide scope, as the measures taken by the Turkish administration were temporary, and trade with the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus was profitable. In the two above-mentioned cases, each ship had an impressive cargo brought from the coast of Circassia. In the first case, wax and other goods worth six or seven thousand piastres are mentioned. In the second case, we speak of a "rich cargo" and a lot of slaves [AVPRI, f. Embassy in Constantinople, op. 517/1, op. 1512, l. 55-57 vol.]. The reason for such a wide spread of trade with the Circassian coast and the condescending attitude of the Porte government should be sought in the profitability of this type of trade operations and established trade relations. Most of the foreign merchants in Circassia enjoyed the patronage of local residents. Thus, the patron of Bell during his "trade" expeditions was Gindar-Oglu Shapsug, who enjoys authority in his region [AVPRI, F. Embassy in Constantinople, op. 517/1, d. 1511, d. 93 vol.; d. 1512, l. 58]. After the introduction of strict Russian control over foreign trade, the tactics of traders changed, and small bays on the Circassian coast such as Dzhinki and Shepsi became places of exchange [AVPRI, F. Embassy in Constantinople, op. 517/1, d. 1511, l. 91, 109 vol.].

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The policy of patronizing trade with the Circassian coast was also carried out by Sinop's pasha Reis-Khalil. Personally, he owned ships engaged in trade with Circassia, including the slave trade. So, on his ship was seen seven people, subjects of Russia, captured by the highlanders and sold into slavery. Among them are two cavalry officers [AVPRI, F. Embassy in Constantinople, op. 517/1, d. 1512, l. 78 vol.]. Despite the demand of the Russian consul to arrest the ship and release Russian subjects to freedom, the Turkish authorities did not take the necessary measures, and the perpetrators were not punished.

Sinop was also a major supplier of weapons to Circassia. Twenty boats belonging to the ruler of Sinop, Hussein Bey, regularly made trips to the eastern shore of the Black Sea. Thus, the British Bell and Longworth regularly delivered weapons to Gelendzhik and handed them over to the Adygs [AVPRI, F. Embassy in Constantinople, op. 517/1, d. 1512, l. 24 vol. -25]. In Sinop, merchants of slaves and weapons, English agents visiting the territory of Circassia, simply merchants found refuge [AVPRI, F. Embassy in Constantinople, op. 517/1, d. 1514, l. 32-33].

One of the articles of Adyghe-Turkish trade was the export of people from Circassia as slaves. The sale of slaves to Turkey connected the Adyghe tribal elite with the Ottoman Empire. Children from 6 to 12 years old, as well as girls and women, were in great demand. Circassian women were valued throughout the East for their beauty and talents. Trafficking in women brought in huge profits, being a quick source of wealth. According to T. Lapinsky, who spent a lot of time among the Circassians, "a slave trader almost always makes three, four, and often even ten times as much profit" (Lapinski, 1863, p. 116). Having made several flights with "live goods", a Turkish merchant could provide for himself for the rest of his life. A boy was worth 100 rubles in silver, a girl-300-350 rubles, and women for a rich harem-from 50 to 100 thousand piastres [Kanitz, 1876, p. 362; Sukunov and Sukunova, 1992, p. 219].

Major Turkish officials participated in the purchase of Circassian women. Many ladies from the highest Turkish society participated in the trade of girls. Thus, Bagi Khanum, the wife of a prominent Turkish diplomat Fuad Pasha, was engaged in the sale of slaves. In Constantinople, girls were transferred to the buyer's harem, where they were taught to play the piano, foreign languages, especially French, and then taken as legal wives or transferred to other harems. According to one of these saleswomen, Atija Khanum, she sold a certain Cemalifa to a Turkish pasha for 1000 pounds; Anifera was purchased at an auction by an Egyptian dignitary for 750 pounds [Schweiger-Lerhenfeld, 1885, pp. 19-36].

To engage in the slave trade, it was necessary to observe all the formalities, having received a teskere (passport) from the Turkish administration and joining the esnaf (workshop) of slave traders [Circassians in Turkey, 1871, p. 48]. The fate of women at the same time developed in different ways. Slavery was an integral part of the harem system that existed in Turkey. Some Circassian women were the mothers of sultans, played a major role in the Turkish court, and influenced the appointments and movements of officials in the service. Circassian women who achieved a high position helped their fellow countrymen in the service [GAKK, f. 348, op. 1, d. 9, l. 400-405]. Circassian women were the mothers of Sultans Selim III (1789-1809), Abdul-Majid (1839-1861), and Abdul - Hamid II (1876-1909). The latter's wife was also a Circassian woman [Thirty years..., 1874, p. 139, 140].

A. P. Butenev noted that the reason for patronizing the smuggling trade with the eastern coast of the Black Sea is that many important dignitaries are married to Circassians. The Sultan constantly issued laws prohibiting trade. Despite this, Osman Pasha of Trebizond and his brother Abdullah Bey patronized trade relations with the North-Western Caucasus (AKAK, vol. VIII, 1879, p. 768).

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Although the 1940s were characterized by the absence of major crises in Russian-Turkish relations, a diplomatic standoff continued due to Russia's demand for Turkey to stop trading and delivering weapons to the eastern coast of the Black Sea [AVPRI, F. Turkish Table, op. 502a, d. 4504, l. 23]. The port, recognizing the terms of the Treaty of Adrianople, was limited to formal prohibitions on trade with the coast of Circassia. The Russian consul in Trebizond, in his report to the Charge d'affaires, reported that once again the vizier Osman Pasha, upon receiving a letter demanding to stop hidden connections with the Circassian coast, promised to issue an order and do everything dependent on him to strictly prevent any kind of communication between his administration and the mountaineers of Circassia [AVPRI, F. Embassy in Constantinople, op. 517/1, d. 1514, l. 178-179 vol.].

Similar demands for a ban on the export of weapons to Circassia were sent to the Samsun authorities in December 1843 [AVPRI, F. Embassy in Constantinople, op. 517/1, d. 1517, l. 86-86 ob]. In a report to the Russian Defense Minister, it was reported that weapons were purchased in the Turkish capital under the patronage of the former Constantinople Seraskir Said Pasha and transported to the eastern coast of the Black Sea with the assistance of the Sinop administration. In the same report, it was emphasized that the number of smuggling vessels coming from Turkey has recently increased. Therefore, it is necessary "to consider it necessary to instruct our envoy in Constantinople to use new efforts so that the government takes the strictest measures to prevent the departure of contraband vessels to the eastern coast of the Black Sea" [AVPRI, F. Turkish table, op. 502 a, d. 4504, l.22-23].

But ships with goods continued to ply between Turkey and the Northwestern Caucasus. All this was done under the patronage of local authorities [AVPRI, f. Embassy in Constantinople, op. 517/1, d. 1514, 1840, l. 86-86 vol.; 99-100; f. Turkish table, op. 502 a, d. 4503, 1846, l. 15-16]. In 1845, on behalf of M. S. Vorontsov, a special agent of the Russian government traveled all along the coast of Turkey. The purpose of his trip was to collect information about the smuggling trade with Circassia [AVPRI, F. Embassy in Constantinople, d. 2457, l. 30-31]. After that, a protest was submitted to the Turkish government. In response, the Sultan took some measures to combat smuggling. A firman was issued, according to which all detained ships carrying weapons to Circassia will not receive protection in case of confiscation, and the owners will be punished. In 1845, the Sinop kaimakam Ibrahim Bey was dismissed on suspicion of connivance with smuggling, and in 1847, the Sinop Kaimakam Ibrahim Bey was dismissed. The head of the Turkish secret police, Nejib Efendi, who was accused of active activity in the Caucasus, lost his post. Trade with Circassia began to be accompanied by great precautions. The Porte constantly assured the Russian representatives that the government did not intend to promote trade and resistance of the Highlanders [AVPRI, f. 137, op. 475, d.17, l. 217-219; d. 18, l. 221-222].

Thus, the end of the XVIII and the first half of the XIX century. They were characterized by a change in the political situation in the region, the weakening of the Port's influence and the growth of Russia's power. The Treaty of Adrianople of 1829 included the Northwestern Caucasus in the Russian sphere of influence. But trade ties with Turkey were not cut off. Attempts by the Russian government to establish customs and quarantine controls along the eastern Black Sea coast and stop the smuggling trade have not been very successful. The Turkish administration paid lip service to the Russian demands, but made no real effort. Turkey's markets needed goods coming from the Caucasus. The intensification of military operations there in the 30 - 40s of the XIX century caused an increase in the supply of weapons. A long-term war in the Caucasus could only exist due to the regular supply of large quantities of weapons to Circassia through the ports of Anatolia. This problem was resolved only after the end of training-

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of the civil war. During this period, trade between Turkey and England with the eastern coast of the Black Sea ceased altogether.

list of literature

AARI (Archive of the Adyghe Research Institute).

AVPRI (Archive of Foreign Policy of the Russian Empire).

AKAK (Acts collected by the Caucasian Archeographic Commission). Tiflis, vol. VII-XII, 1878-1904.

Archive of the Rayevskys, St. Petersburg, vol. III, 1910.

SAC (State Archive of the Krasnodar Territory).

History of the peoples of the North Caucasus (late 17th century-1917). Moscow, 1988.

Caucasian Collection, vol. 32, part II. Tiflis, 1912.

F. Kanitz Danube Bulgaria and the Balkan Peninsula. St. Petersburg, 1876.

N. Karlhof On the political structure of Circassian tribes inhabiting the north-eastern coast of the Black Sea / / Russian Bulletin, vol. 28, Moscow, 1860.

N. Klingen Fundamentals of farming in the Sochi district. St. Petersburg, 1897.

Essays on the History of Adygea, vol. 1. Maikop, 1957.

Pisarev V. I. Methods of conquest of the Adyghe people by tsarism in the first half of the XIX century // Historical notes. Issue 9. Moscow, 1940.

RGVIA (Russian State Military Historical Archive).

Sukunov Kh. Kh., Sukunova I. Kh. Cherkeshenka. Maykop, 1992.

Grizzly bear-Megemet Pasha, Melek Khanum. Thirty Years in Turkish Harems: the Autobiography of the Grand Vizier's wife St. Petersburg, 1874.

Philipson G. I. Memoirs, Moscow, 1885.

Khan-Giray. Notes on Circassia. Nalchik, 1972.

Circassians in Turkey / / World Traveler. N 9 - 10. 1871.

Chirg A. Y. Russia's struggle against smuggling and slave trade in the North-West Caucasus (1825-1864). Dis. ... cand.ist. Moscow, 1987.

Shamray V. S. Kratkiy ocherk menovykh (torgovykh) snosheniy po Chernomorskoi kordonnoi i beregovoy linii s zakubanskimi gorskimi narodami s 1792 po 1804 god [A brief sketch of exchange (trade) relations along the Black Sea cordon and coastal line with the Trans-Kuban Mountain peoples from 1792 to 1804].

Schweiger-Lerhenfeld A. F. The woman. Its life, customs and social status among all the peoples of the globe. St. Petersburg, 1885.

Bell J. S. Journal of a Resident in Circassia during the Years 1837, 1838 and 1839. L., 1840.

Lapinski Th. Die Bergvolker des Kaukasus und ihr Freiheitskampf gegen die Russen. Hamburg, 1863.

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