S. V. KOSTELYANETS

Candidate of Political Sciences Institute of Africa, Russian Academy of Sciences

Turkey Keywords:, Africa, political contacts, economic relations, Islam, education, peacemaking

In January 2012, the 7th Turkish - African Congress "Multidimensional Struggle for Africa: The Future of Turkish-African Relations"was held in Khartoum, the capital of Sudan. The Forum was organized by the Institute of Africa of the Turkish-Asian Center for Strategic Studies (Istanbul) and was the first of a series of Turkish-African congresses and summits held on the African continent: previously they were held only in Istanbul.

The congress was dedicated to discussing and comparing the specifics of the African policy of the largest international players - the European Union( EU), the United States, China, India, Brazil, Russia, Iran and Turkey. In addition to representatives from Turkey, India, Brazil, Russia and Iran, the congress was also attended by delegates from 11 African countries: Ghana, DRC, Egypt, Zambia, Kenya, Morocco, Senegal, Somalia, Ethiopia, South Africa and, of course, Sudan.

In the article below, the author, who participated in the Khartoum Forum, explores the main milestones in the formation of modern African policy in Turkey and the potential of Turkish-African cooperation.

The very name of the congress indicates Turkey's desire to become one of the leading political and economic partners of African countries.

The beginning of Turkey's activism in Africa dates back to the late 1990s, when the country's Foreign Minister, Ismail Cem (1997 - 2002), initiated a "policy of openness" towards the Black continent's states. In the context of this policy, it was planned to start developing Turkey's political, economic, trade and cultural ties with African countries.¹ Some Turkish experts believe that the EU's refusal to grant Turkey the status of a candidate member of the European Union in 1997 served to some extent as the impetus for this turn towards Africa. ² However, Ankara's interest in Africa did not weaken even after gaining this status in 2000.

In accordance with the new policy, it was planned to open new Turkish embassies in the countries of the continent, exchange official visits, conclude agreements on trade and investment protection, establish contacts in the field of science and education, and hold cultural events. However, the implementation of these plans was hindered by the political and economic crisis that Turkey experienced in 2000-2002.³

As a result of the 2002 parliamentary elections, the Justice and Development Party (AKP) came to power in the country under the leadership of the current Prime Minister Recep Erdogan, which not only continued, but also strengthened the African vector in foreign policy.

2005 was declared the Year of Africa in Turkey. A number of visits by Erdogan to the countries of the continent followed, and he was not limited to the traditional North African partners of the country and was the first of the Turkish prime ministers to visit Ethiopia and South Africa.⁴ At the same time, a number of steps were taken to institutionalize relations with Africa: Turkey was granted observer status with the African Union (AU), and the Turkish Embassy in Addis Ababa, which was accredited to the AU, began to represent the interests of this Asian country in it. In 2005, the Chairman of the Afro-Union Commission, Jean Ping ⁵, visited Turkey for the first time.

The number of state and working visits of the Turkish leadership to Africa in 2006 - 2011 shows that the continent occupies one of the priority positions in Ankara's foreign policy. Turkish President Abdullah Gul visited Egypt, Kenya and Tanzania in 2009, Congo and Cameroon in 2010, and Ghana and Gabon in 2011. In turn, the Prime Minister R. Erdogan paid visits to Sudan in 2006,

Egypt and Algeria, in 2007 - to Ethiopia, in 2009-to Egypt, in 2010-to Libya, in 2011-to Egypt, Tunisia, South Africa, Libya and Somalia.

The events of the" Arab Spring " in North Africa provided Turkey with opportunities to strengthen its political influence in this cultural and geographically close region, which Ankara did not fail to take advantage of. In September 2011, when R. Erdogan visited Egypt, in Cairo, he was greeted like a rock star by numerous crowds of fans. An agreement was signed on the establishment of a Turkish-Egyptian Cooperation Council, and the Prime Minister promised the Egyptian partners to increase the volume of Turkish investments in the country's economy from $1.5 billion. up to $5 billion. Erdogan called on Egyptians to build a secular state based on the Turkish model.⁶

In Libya, the Turkish Prime Minister said his country would help the new government rebuild war-torn infrastructure and build a new parliament building in Tripoli.⁷ It should be noted that R. Erdogan tried to distance himself from Western countries, criticizing them for delays in the unfreezing of Libyan assets.

Turkish President Abdullah Gul followed the Prime Minister to North Africa. In March 2012, he paid an official visit to Tunisia, where he noted that this country "can become a second Turkey" ⁸.

Of course, the experience of Turkey, which has successfully implemented political and economic modernization and built one of the few democratic societies in the Middle East, looks very attractive, which is confirmed by the reaction of Africans to the visits of Turkish leaders. Apparently, Ankara has begun to actively claim ideological leadership, if not on the entire continent, then in North Africa.

Erdogan's visit to Somalia is also notable. The Prime Minister went there with his wife and daughter, his ministers and their families. Given that the situation in Mogadishu, surrounded by Islamists from the Al-Shabaab movement, remains extremely turbulent, it is necessary to note the risk that the Turkish delegation was exposed to during the visit. Infrastructure problems were also added to this: the prime minister's plane was slightly damaged during landing. Nevertheless, the Turks fully implemented the program of the visit, including visiting refugee and displaced persons ' camps.

According to R. Erdogan, the purpose of his visit was not only to determine the scale of assistance, primarily food, that Somalia needs, but also to break the perception of the world community that visiting Mogadishu remains too dangerous, and therefore almost impossible.⁹ In addition, the Turkish delegation demonstrated its strategic interest in the Horn of Africa and its willingness to develop relations with even the most unstable African States.

Turkey's diplomatic presence in Africa is also expanding. If at the time of the initiation of the "policy of openness" there were 12 Turkish embassies in the countries of the continent, then by the beginning of 2012 their number reached 26. Thus, in 2010, diplomatic missions were opened in Angola, Cameroon, the Gambia, Ghana, Mali and Uganda; in 2011, in Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Somalia and South Sudan.¹⁰ By 2013, Turkey plans to increase the number of its representative offices in Africa to 3311. In 2011, 10 African countries announced plans to open their embassies in Ankara 12.

AFRICA IS MOVING FORWARD

It should be noted that the African countries highly appreciated Turkey's desire to establish partnership relations with the countries of the continent. In 2008, the AU demonstrated its willingness to strengthen ties with this Middle Eastern country by declaring it a strategic partner of the continent. In August of the same year, the 1st Turkish-African Congress was held in Istanbul, which was attended by representatives of 50 African countries, including 6 presidents, 5 Vice-presidents and 6 Prime ministers.¹³ In his welcoming speech on the opening day of the summit, President Gul noted that "Turkey sees Africa not only as the cradle of civilization, but also as the future center of humanity." ¹⁴ Two months later, an overwhelming majority (51) of African countries voted to elect Turkey (for the first time) as a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council.¹⁵ Thus, Turkey has already begun to extract political dividends from its African strategy. The next Turkish-African summit is scheduled to be held in one of the countries of the continent in 2013.

Undoubtedly, for Africa, Turkey is primarily interesting as a partner, which makes it possible to diversify its dependence on Western countries and China. Turkish leaders constantly emphasize that they are building equal relations with the states of the Black continent and find a grateful response in Africa. In turn, the support of African countries for Turkey on the world stage gives the latter the opportunity to increase its diplomatic weight and expand the space for political maneuver. This is especially important because there are differences between Turkey, on the one hand, and European countries and the United States, on the other, on some issues of international politics.

In parallel with the 1st Turkish-African Summit, the Turkish Association of Businessmen and Industrialists held a Turkish-African Business Forum aimed at promoting and strengthening the position of Turkish commercial, industrial and construction companies in Africa. The event was attended by 3,500 entrepreneurs, mainly representatives of medium-sized businesses from Turkey and 45 other countries, and the trade and economic impact of the forum was estimated at $3 billion.

ECONOMIC EXPANSION

Turkey builds its partnership with Africa on a solid foundation of economic ties. Turkey's economic policy in Africa is well-thought-out and progressive and is based on the document "Strategy for Improving Trade and Economic Relations with Africa".

countries of Africa", adopted in 2003. In accordance with this strategy, trade representative offices, various business councils, legal mechanisms and interstate agreements, as well as trade fairs serve as tools for developing economic cooperation. It is also expected to assist African countries in the process of their accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO), provide technical assistance and develop interbank relations. ¹⁶ The strategy fully meets the interests of Turkey, whose rapidly growing economy needs large export markets.

As a result of this program, Turkey's exports to Africa totaled $10.3 billion in 2011. (2003 - $2.1 billion), and imports - $6.8 billion. (2003 - $3.3 billion). Turkey exports construction materials, mechanical engineering products, textiles and ready-made clothing, medical equipment and chemical products, jewelry and agricultural products to Africa. Turkey imports hydrocarbons, lubricants, precious metals and stones, chemical products, cocoa, steel and iron ore from Africa.

According to the African Economic Outlook, in 2009, Turkey ranked 5th among developing countries in terms of trade with Africa (Turkey - 2.4% of the continent's foreign trade turnover, after China-13.9%, India -5.1%, Korea-2.6% and Brazil -2.5%) ¹⁷. In 2010, Turkish investment in Africa exceeded $3 billion ¹⁸.

Turkey has signed free trade agreements with Tunisia (2005), Egypt (2006), Morocco (2006) and Mauritius (2011). Turkey's trade offices are open in Algeria, Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Libya, Kenya, Nigeria, Morocco, Senegal, Sudan, Tanzania, Tunisia and SOUTH AFRICA ¹⁹.

In line with the objectives of developing interbank relations, Turkey became the 25th non-regional member of the African Development Bank20 ⁱⁿ 2008. This position opens up opportunities for Turkish companies to participate in major infrastructure projects on the continent.

The expansion of political and economic cooperation could not but affect the development of transport links between Turkey and Africa. Turkish Airlines already offers flights to 21 African countries. In 2012, the company was the first major international airline to open commercial service to the Somali capital Mogadishu. ²¹ Turkish Airlines is planning further expansion to the continent, and Istanbul has already become one of the largest transit points for travelers to Africa.

SOFT POWER IN ACTION

Under the expansion of its presence in Africa, Turkey consistently brings the appropriate scientific and educational base. In 2006, the Institute of Africa was established under the Turkish-Asian Center for Strategic Studies, which became the first scientific institution in Turkey that specifically studies the Black Continent. Since 2008, the Institute has participated in the organization of seven Turkish-African congresses, as well as thematic scientific conferences and round tables.²²

In 2008, the Center for African Studies was opened at Ankara University. Its tasks include conducting research on the history, culture, politics, geography and international relations of African countries, as well as training Turkish specialists who can support the implementation of Turkey's political and economic strategy on the continent.²³

Turkey has prudently taken care of forming a significant contingent of Africans who are familiar with this Middle Eastern partner, know Turkish and can become convenient counterparties for Turkish diplomats, businessmen and politicians in the future. As part of the educational exchange, more than 300 African students receive scholarships from the Turkish Government to study at universities and other educational institutions in the country.

More than 60 Turkish schools are already operating in 30 African countries, providing quality education, mainly to children of the African elite, in Turkish, English and local languages. In 2010, Turkish Deputy Prime Minister Bulent Arinc noted that "Turkish schools are the key to success in Africa"²⁴. Educational institutions are established at the expense of non-governmental Turkish foundations, often with the support of Turkish business structures.

In addition to the political, economic, scientific and educational components, the Turkish strategy in Africa involves the provision of humanitarian and development assistance. Turkey's humanitarian representative in Africa is the Turkish International Agency for Cooperation and Development (TICA), which has three offices on the continent - in Addis Ababa, Khartoum and Dakar, through which it implements various projects in 37 African countries. For example, in Ethiopia, the agency builds wells and trains medical personnel; in Senegal, it conducts medical examinations and distributes medicines; in Sudan, in Nyala, it has built a hospital for victims of the Darfur conflict, delivers humanitarian aid to refugee camps, and plans to start construction of wells in South Kordo province.-

fan ²⁵. The Agency also implements a number of agricultural projects in Burkina Faso, Guinea, Kenya, Madagascar, Mali, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda and other countries. As you can see, the agency implements the most relevant projects for each country. In 2009, the organization spent $90 million on ^them26.

In this context, the Turkish Foundation for the Protection of Human Rights and Freedoms and Humanitarian Aid should also be mentioned. This non-governmental organization operates in more than 100 countries around the world and specializes in providing humanitarian and medical assistance. Among the largest projects of the Foundation is a project to remove cataracts in 100 thousand Africans. By the beginning of 2012, about 57,000 operations had been performed, including 30,000 in Sudan, 15,000 in Ethiopia, and 10,000 in Somaliland.²⁷ The project's motto is "open the eyes of 100 thousand Africans".

We can conclude with a fair degree of confidence that the above projects effectively create the image of Turkey as a friend of ordinary Africans.

It should be noted, however, that the project" Open the eyes of 100 thousand Africans " was unusually received by some experts on Turkey. Given the Foundation's Islamist roots (the organization is even banned in Israel for supporting the Hamas movement), ²⁸ these researchers wonder if one of the Foundation's goals is to further spread Islam on the continent and, through Islam, strengthen Turkey's influence.²⁹

Religion is one of the areas in which Turkey has a significant advantage over other African partners, and it is not surprising that Ankara is trying to play the Islamic card to strengthen its position on the continent. The Turkish Office of Religious Affairs has become the main tool through which Ankara secures its "soft power" in Africa through religious contacts.

In 2006, the Office held a meeting of religious leaders, which was attended by representatives of Turkey and 21 African countries. The stated purpose of the event was to establish cooperation between Muslim communities. During the meeting, the proposal of the Turkish side to open religious representative offices in a number of African states was adopted to coordinate the activities of national religious organizations and exchange relevant information. They also stressed the need for cooperation in the field of religious education, including student exchange, as well as the urgency of building religious buildings in Africa with Turkish assistance. The participants did not limit themselves to discussing religious issues, but stressed the importance of developing trade and economic ties between Turkey and African countries.³⁰

PEACEMAKING AND MILITARY-TECHNICAL COOPERATION

Another area in which Turkey has a prominent position on the African continent is its participation in UN peacekeeping missions. Turkish police officers participated in the AC-UN hybrid operation in Darfur, as well as in UN contingents in South Sudan, Liberia, Congo and Cote d'Ivoire. In January 2012, the Turkish Parliament extended for another year the participation of the Turkish fleet, represented by two frigates, in the operation to combat Somali pirates.³¹

Turkey also has military-technical cooperation (MTC) agreements with a number of African countries. For example, in 2009, a military-technical cooperation agreement was signed with the Gambia. ³² In 2011, a similar agreement, including military-industrial cooperation, training of military personnel and acquisition of naval equipment from Turkey, was signed by the President of Nigeria, Goodluck Jonathan, during his visit to Istanbul.³³

ACHIEVEMENTS, CHALLENGES, AND PROSPECTS

Thus, Turkey's expansion strategy in Africa is multi-faceted and purposefully implemented by the country's political leaders in the person of Prime Minister Recep Erdogan and President Abdullah Gul, the diplomatic corps, the business community, scientific institutions and educational centers, state and non-state humanitarian organizations, religious structures and security agencies. Turkey's influence on the African continent is growing in politics, trade, education, culture, religion, ideology, humanitarian projects, and military-technical cooperation. It is difficult to find a sphere of relations in which this Middle Eastern country would not come up with some initiative addressed to the countries of Africa. At the same time, achievements in one of the areas are carefully transferred to related areas.

The most difficult issue is the growth of Turkey's political or ideological influence in Africa (or part of it). Here, Turkey's ambitions clash with the diversity of the African continent, where for some countries its system and ideology are too secular, and for others, on the contrary, too Islamized.

Some African politicians see Turkey as part of the West, following in the wake of the United States, while others view it as an overly assertive regional player with an ambiguous colonial past: the Ottoman Empire's possessions once included, in whole or in part, under direct domination or through indirect influence, such African states as Egypt, Libya, Algeria, Tunisia, Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Djibouti, Somalia, Niger and Chad.

Turkey's Euro-Atlantic orientation and its desire to join the EU also to some extent hinder the development of political ties with the states of the Black continent. For example, in 2009, Sudan's President Omar al-Bashir intended to attend a meeting of the Organization of ^the Islamic Conference34 held in Turkey, but under pressure from the EU, Turkey invited the Sudanese president to cancel his visit. The reason for the pressure was the arrest warrant issued in 2008 by the International Criminal Court (ICC)for al-Bashir on charges of genocide. Despite the fact that Turkey is not a signatory state to the statute documents of the ICC, Ankara had to give in to the EU.

In turn, Turkey's trade and economic cooperation with Africa is not subject to similar restrictions. In 2011, Turkish and African politicians announced plans to increase mutual trade turnover to $50 billion by 2015. ³⁵ Most of the obstacles to such rapid growth - such as lack of information about each other, language barriers, and transport difficulties - seem to be overcome within the framework of ongoing projects.

* * *

In general, the potential for developing Turkish-African relations is huge. Turkey has already firmly established itself among Africa's most important partners, largely due to its political will and special view of the continent as an equal partner. In North Africa and Somalia, Turkish leaders demonstrated a willingness to take decisive steps-visiting troubled regions at the risk of their own lives, supporting new regimes, and appealing to the peoples of these countries to follow the Turkish model of democracy - which not only emphasized the region's priority for Ankara, but also attracted the attention of the entire continent.

Turkey tirelessly emphasizes that the future belongs to Africa, and therefore to Africa's partners. The dynamics of Turkish-African relations demonstrate the absolute success of Ankara's African strategy, which can serve as an example for many developing countries.

¹ Turkish Foreign Ministry. Turkish-African relations http://www.mfa.gov.tr/turkey-africa-relations.en.mfa

^{Ozkan M., V. Akgun.} 2 Turkey's opening to Africa // Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 48, No. 4 (2010), p. 532.

³ OECD Observer - http://www.oecdobserver.org/news/fullstory. php/aid/435.html

⁴ Turkish Weekly - http://www.turkishweekly.net/news/5643/ turkey-declares-2005-africa-year-.html

⁵ Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Turkey. Turkey and the African Union - http://www.mfa. gov.tr/the-united-nations-organization-and-turkey_.en.mfa

⁶ Why Turkey's Erdogan is greeted like a Rock Star in Egypt -http.y/www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2093090,00.html

⁷ Erdogan: Turkey to help build new Libya // Today's Zaman -http://www.todayszaman.com/news-257136-erdogan-turkey-to-help-build-new-libya.html

⁸ Presidency of Turkey - http://www.tccb.gov.tr/news/397/82305/ tunisia-could-be-a-second-turkey.html

⁹ BBC News - http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14588960

¹⁰ Turkish Foreign Ministry - http://www.mfa.gov.tr/turkish-representations. en. mfa

^Stuenkel 11 O.Turkey joins the 'Struggle for Africa' -http://www.postwesternworld.com/2012/01/19/turkey-joins-the-struggle-for-africa

¹² Ghana goes to Asia: Ankara, Guangdong missions open // The Africa Report - http://www.theafricareport.com/index.php/west-africa/ghana-goes-to-asia-ankara-guangdong- missions-open-501806 308.html

¹³ Turkish Asian Center for Strategic Studies - http://tasam. org/en/Spektrum/6/Afrika

¹⁴ Presidency of Turkey - http://www.tccb.gov.tr/speeches-statements/344/56365/speech-by-he-abdullah-gul-president-of -the-republic-of-turkey-on-the-occasion-of-the-inauguration-of.html

¹⁵ Le Monde diplomatique - http://mondediplo.com/2011/05/ 08turkey

¹⁶ Ministry of Economic Development of Turkey http://www.economy.gov.tr/index.cfm?sayfa=countriesandregions&regi on=0

¹⁷ African Economic Outlook - http://www.africaneconomicout look.org/en/in-depth/africa-and-its-emerging-partners/africa-pushes-aside-post-colonialism/em erging-partners-go-from-the-balcony-to-orchestra-in-a-decade

¹⁸ Ibidem.

¹⁹ African Economic Outlook...

²⁰ African Development Bank Group - http://www.afdb.org/en/

news-and-events/article/board-approves-turkeys-application-for-afdb-membership-2534

²¹ Турецкие авиалинии - http://www.turkishairlines.com/en-int/corporate/press-room/press-releases/9494/turkish-airline s-begins-service-to-mogadishu-somalia-on-march-6 - 2012.aspx

²² TASAM African Institute - http://www.tasamafrika.org/ index.php?option=com_content&view-article&id=115

²³ Africa Studies Research and Application Center http://www.acaum.org.

²⁴ Turkish schools key to success in Africa // Today's Zaman -http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById.action7newsId =228598

²⁵ Turkish International Cooperation and Development Agency (TICA) - http://store.tika.gov.tr/yayinlar/kurumsal-yayinlar/afrika_ en.pdf

²⁶ TICA - http://store.tika.gov.tr/yayinlar/kalkinma-yardimi/Kal kinmaYardimlariRaporu2009.pdf

²⁷ IHH Humanitarian Relief Foundation - http://www.ihh.org.tr/ mazlum-bakislarin-riyasiz-tesekkurleri-icin-e2 - 80-a6/en

²⁸ Targeted by Israeli raid: Who is the IHH? // The Christian Science Monitor - http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/ 2010/0601/Targeted-by-Israeli-raid-Who-is-the-IHH

²⁹ Turkey's Developing Role in Africa: Interview with Mehmet Ozkan and Birol Akgun // Balcanalysis - http://www.bal-kanalysis.com/turkey/2011/01/01/turkey's-developing-role-in-africa-interview- with-mehmet-ozkan-and-birol-akgun

³⁰ Diyanet. Meeting of Muslim Religious Leaders - Final Declaration - http://africa.diyanet.gov.tr/dosya/52/sonucbildirgesiingilizce241120 ll_52_5241772.pdf

³¹ Turkish Navy extends anti-piracy task off Somalia // TR Defence - http://www.trdefence.com/2012/02/01/turkish-navy-extends-anti-piracy-task-off-somalia

³² Gambia-Turkey military cooperation agreement ratified // Daily Observer - http://observer.gm/africa/gambia/article/gambia-turkey-military-cooperation-agreement-ratifie d

³³ Nigeria, Turkey strengthen defence ties // Sunday Trust -http://sundaytrust.com.ng/index.php?option-com_content&view=artic le&id-5958

³⁴ Since June 2011 - Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) (Editor's note).

³⁵ African Union. Press Release 192 /2011 - http://www.au.int/en/sites/default/files/PR 2 Sent- Africa - Turkey RMC - Istambull6 Dec 2011-l.pdf

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