S. V. KOSTELYANETS

Candidate of Political Sciences

Institute of Africa, Russian Academy of Sciences

Keywords: Turkey, Africa, political contacts, economic relations, energy, religious ties

On November 15-16, 2015, Antalya (Turkey) hosted the G20 summit. And on October 2, in preparation for the summit, at the suggestion of the Turkish presidency, a meeting of G-20 energy ministers was held for the first time, where issues of energy development in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)were discussed¹. The topic of energy in the SSA was also raised at the summit of heads of State.

Turkey's interest in African energy is not accidental. Today, Turkey is one of the fastest growing electricity markets in the world. Energy development is the main national project of Ankara. The annual growth of electricity production in Turkey is 9%. Electricity generation is expected to double in the coming years. Tens of billions of dollars are being invested in hydropower, solar and wind sources, coal, gas and nuclear power, and transmission electric networks.²

But the demands of the Turkish economy in the foreseeable future will not be enough for the strengthened Turkish energy companies, and they are already looking at foreign markets. A huge potential market is SSA, with a population of approximately one billion people and extremely low access to energy services. But it would be difficult for the Turks to enter this market if it were not for the intensively developing Turkish-African relations since the end of the last century.

COSTS OF ANKARA'S FOREIGN POLICY

In recent years, Ankara's foreign policy has not been criticized only by the lazy. The main reason for criticism is the failure of the "zero problems with neighbors" concept. It was proposed in 2008 by Ahmet Davutoglu, then Turkey's foreign minister, and until May this year, the country's Prime minister. The concept aimed at enhancing Turkey's role on the world stage by establishing good-neighborly relations with the states of the region, suffered such an obvious fiasco that reputable publications did not hesitate to express themselves. Thus, Foreign Policy magazine dubbed the current situation in the country as "from zero problems to zero friends" and noted "the complete loss of all levers of influence" on neighboring countries. ³ The Economist argued that "Turkey's zero problems policy generates its own problems. "⁴ and the popular opposition Turkish publication Today's Zaman aptly described the situation as" zero problems to zero friends." it noticed that the situation of "zero problems with neighbors" was transformed into "only problems with neighbors" ⁵ or "zero neighbors without problems" ⁶.

In the summer of 2015, armed clashes between the Turkish army and the Kurdish Workers ' Party militants resumed, spreading to Iraq and Syria. Turkey's relations with official Damascus have been teetering on the brink of war for several years. In the context of the Syrian conflict and because of Turkey's support for Sunni radicals, its relations with Tehran and Baghdad have worsened. Contacts with Israel did not improve after the incident with the Turkish "Freedom Flotilla" heading to the Gaza Strip. The process of normalization of relations with Armenia has failed. Relations with the European Union also remain cool, including due to the unresolved problem of Northern Cyprus and violations in the field of human rights protection. At the end of 2015, after the tragic incident with the Su-24, relations between Turkey and Russia became tense.

WITH AN EYE ON AFRICA

In the context of regional failures, Turkey's cooperation programs with the "far abroad" countries are becoming increasingly important. A special place in them is occupied by Africa. Since the late 1990s, Turkey has been pursuing a "policy of openness" towards the Black Continent States. In accordance with this policy, in a number of African countries-

The material was prepared within the framework of the Russian Science Foundation project N 14 - 18 - 03615 "Russian policy in the Middle East: opportunities and limits of cooperation with the countries of the region".

New embassies were opened, official visits were exchanged, bilateral trade and investment agreements were concluded, contacts were established in the field of science and education, and cultural events were held. ⁷ As a result of the 2002 parliamentary elections, the Justice and Development Party (AKP) came to power in the country under the leadership of current President Recep Erdogan, which not only continued, but also strengthened the African vector in foreign policy.

On November 19-21, 2014, the second Turkey - Africa summit was held in Malabo (Equatorial Guinea) (the first one was held in 2008 in Istanbul ⁸). It was attended by representatives of 30 African countries, including: 7 presidents, 2 Vice-presidents, 3 Prime ministers and 11 ministers.⁹ In his welcoming speech on the opening day of the summit, Erdogan noted that Turkey and Africa "have made significant progress in various areas of cooperation", thus completing the "process of achieving openness" in relations, and now they must "move to the next, more advanced stage based on equal cooperation" ^.10

In 2006-2014, the President and Prime Minister of Turkey made more than 20 state visits to Africa, opening 27 Turkish embassies in Africa and 22 embassies of African countries in Ankara. In total, there are currently 39 Turkish embassies in Africa, and African countries have increased the number of their representative offices in Turkey from 10 in 2010 to 32 in 2015. " In 2015, Turkish President Erdogan visited 3 African capitals-Addis Ababa, Djibouti and Mogadishu. The development of economic ties is not far behind: in 2014, Turkey's trade turnover with African countries amounted to $23.4 billion. (in 2003 - $5.5 billion) ¹².

In parallel, air traffic is also developing. In 2015, Turkish Airlines surpassed Ethiopian Airlines in terms of the number of destinations in Africa and took the 1st place in this indicator. Turkey now operates flights to 31 countries and 48 cities in Africa. In 2012, they offered only 21 flights. In 2014, the number of passengers traveling between Africa and Turkey by air reached 200 thousand ¹³

At the same time, Turkish cooperation with Africa is developing unevenly. By trying to influence the internal politics of African countries and supporting the Muslim Brotherhood, Ankara has severely damaged its reputation in North Africa, especially in Egypt. If in September 2011, when then-Prime Minister Erdogan visited Egypt, he was greeted in Cairo like a rock star by numerous crowds of fans, now the main message of Cairo to Ankara is " stop interfering in our internal affairs." In turn, the Turkish government refuses to recognize the current Egyptian government, which came to power as a result of the events of the summer of 2013, as legitimate and condemns the persecution of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt, which is ideologically close to the AKP.

Under these circumstances, cooperation with Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is becoming increasingly important for Turkey. The priority of this area is determined by three factors::

- first, the remarkable economic growth observed in many SSA countries against the background of relative political stability, which opens up great opportunities for Turkish business;

- Secondly, Turkey's desire to diversify its foreign economic relations, reducing its dependence on traditional partners in the Middle East and North Africa;

- Third, the presence of a significant Muslim population in AYUS, which is interested in educational and cultural cooperation with Turkey.

TRADE AND ECONOMIC COOPERATION

Indeed, economic growth in Africa is increasingly visible on a global scale. From 2009 to 2014, 7 of the world's top ten fastest-growing economies were from Africa. According to the World Bank forecast published in January 2016, in 2016-2018, among the 12 fastest - growing economies in the world, 8 will be African, while-

more than 7 countries are located south of the Sahara (Democratic Republic of the Congo, Djibouti, Ivory Coast, Mozambique, Rwanda, Tanzania, Ethiopia), and Ethiopia is in second place in terms of economic growth (the first was the only representative of North Africa - Libya, which does not differ in political stability)¹⁴.

In the 15 years since 2000, Turkey's trade with the SSA countries has grown more than 10-fold to $8.5 billion.¹⁵ In 2009-2013, there was an increase in trade turnover with all of Turkey's major partners in the SSA - South Africa, Nigeria, Ethiopia, Ghana, Sudan, and Angola (see Table )16^.

Turkey's main exports to AYUS are manufactured goods, steel, food, consumer goods, textiles, and building materials. The main imports are cotton, precious stones, metal ores, coal, wood, and food products. Turkey has already concluded 14 investment protection agreements with ¹⁷ SSA countries, of which 3 include double taxation provisions (with Ethiopia, South Africa and Sudan).18. Ankara also signed the first Free Trade Area Agreement (FTA) in 2011 with Mauritius and is negotiating FTA agreements with several other SSA countries19, including the recent resumption of negotiations with South Africa20.

The investment activity of Turkish companies in Africa is of particular interest. Accumulated Turkish investments on the continent exceed $5 billion, of which more than $ 3 billion. It accounts for $ 500 million in Ethiopia, $ 500 million in South Africa, and $ 160 million in Sudan. ²¹ In Ethiopia, Turkey is particularly prominent as it has come out on top in terms of investment in this African economy, and is directly involved in the Ethiopian economic miracle²². The Turks finance the construction of railways (a 398-kilometer railway line in the north of the country), textile enterprises, and construction materials factories. Turkish companies have created more than 8,000 jobs in Ethiopia ²³.

Energy cooperation between the SSA countries and Turkey is still in its early stages, but the Turks can already boast of one major contract signed in 2014-the lease of two floating Turkish power plants will cost Ghana $1.2 billion. for 10 years ²⁴. The first power plant arrived in Ghana in ^November 2015.25 In addition, Turkey's largest electric cable manufacturer in the WORLD is increasing its supply to Ethiopia, Kenya and Djibouti. A contract for the construction of power plants in Nigeria by the Turkish company Koztek²⁶ is currently under negotiation. There is an interest of Turks in oil production in Angola.

Today, a significant part of Turkish-African economic cooperation is accounted for by small and medium-sized Turkish enterprises, but the energy contracts will mark the arrival of major Turkish corporations in the SSA.

Interest in SSA is growing due to problems in the markets of Turkey's traditional partners. Iraq, Turkey's second-largest trading partner (after Germany), has almost collapsed under the onslaught of Islamic State militants. Official trade with Syria is almost at zero. Egypt remains a major foreign trade partner, but the volume of trade is falling, not least because of the unfavorable political climate.

Overall, in 2014-2015, the growth of the North Africa and Middle East region was twice as slow as that of the SSA ²⁷. The ongoing wars in Syria, Iraq, Yemen, and Libya, as well as the growth of terrorism in Egypt and other Arab countries, do not add optimism in Turkey's eyes. Turkey's claim to ideological leadership in North Africa also failed to materialize. The Turkish response is to diversify ties in favor of the SSA.

Table

SSA countries are Turkey's main trading partners

Source: Turkish Statistical Institute. Foreign Trade Statistics Yearbook 2013.

COOPERATION IN THE CULTURAL AND RELIGIOUS SPHERES

At the same time, Turkish foreign policy traditionally uses cultural, religious and educational ties as the basis for developing political and economic cooperation. The development of Turkish-African cooperation largely began with a cultural and educational breakthrough-the opening of Turkish schools in Africa. Now their number already exceeds 100. In many African countries, Turkish schools are considered the most prestigious, including elite children. In 2009, the first Turkish university in Africa was opened - the Nigerian Turkish Nile University in Abuja. Every year, about 1,000 state scholarships are allocated for Africans who want to study in Turkey. Currently, more than 5 thousand ²⁸ African students are studying in Turkish universities.

About 300 million people now live in AYUS. Muslims, and their share in the population of the region (about 30%) is gradually growing. Demographers estimate that 670 million people will live in SSA in 2050. Muslims, and their share in the population will grow to 35%²⁹. Turkey, although not limited to cooperation with the Muslim countries of the SSA, definitely focuses on developing relations with them. The Turkish Religious Affairs Agency Diyanet is an important tool through which Ankara secures its "soft power" in Africa through religious contacts. Under the AKP government, the Office, whose budget has quadrupled to $2 billion since 2005 and whose number of employees has exceeded 120,000, has become an active agent of Turkey's foreign policy.³⁰

In 2006 and 2011, Diyanet held two conferences of Muslim religious leaders, which were attended by representatives of Turkey and many African countries. The declaration following the last meeting stated the need to develop Imam-hatip secondary schools* and institutions of higher theological education in Africa on the Turkish model as an alternative to the Western educational model.³¹ Representatives of Diyanet, which coordinates the activities of Muslim religious organizations, have started working in a number of Turkish embassies in Africa. In addition, Diyanet finances the construction and restoration of mosques in Africa. A large new mosque is under construction in Somalia, and a mosque with a complex of religious and educational facilities is planned in Djibouti.³² The humanitarian component of Turkish-African cooperation is also very important. Turkey's International Cooperation and Development Agency TICA spends more than a third of its budget - $1.5 billion - on aid to African countries. Among his projects are the construction of hospitals, training of medical personnel, and the development of agriculture. It is interesting to note that TIKA also distributes copies of the Koran to Africans. In 2015-2018, it is planned to distribute 1 million copies of the holy Book ³³.

The Turkish Red Crescent, the Foundation for the Protection of Human Rights and Freedoms and Humanitarian Aid, and a number of other non-governmental organizations are also active in Africa. Among the main recipients of Turkish humanitarian aid are Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia.

Relations between Turkey and Somalia are a special story. Turkey has actually taken on the role of sponsor of this conflict-torn country: paved roads in Mogadishu, repaired the city's electrical networks. It has built the country's largest hospital in Mogadishu (with 200 beds) and pays for its activities. It has built a new terminal at Mogadishu International Airport, where Turkish Airlines already operates daily flights. Finances reforms of the country's army and police. Since 2011, Turkish citizens and businesses have donated more than $300 million to rebuild Somaliland.³⁴ Prospects for the economic return of Turkish investment in Somalia are still unclear. Somaliland has oil and Turks are interested in it, but there is strong competition for this oil.³⁵ The port of Mogadishu has been handed over to a Turkish company for 20 years, but the reconstruction of the port will not pay off soon.³⁶ Somalia at the moment is rather a political project of Turkey, designed to raise its prestige, not only in Africa, but also among Muslims around the world.

In general, the special role of the Horn of Africa (or Greater Horn of Africa, if you include Sudan) in Turkish politics in Africa should be noted: it is here that Ankara sees the greatest potential for developing multifaceted relations due to its strong historical, cultural and religious ties with this region and its comparative geographical proximity. The geography of Erdogan's African visits in 2015 is proof of this.

* Imam-hatip schools, which are common in Turkey, combine in-depth study of the Koran with ordinary general education subjects (author's note).

BUT THERE ARE ALSO PROBLEMS...

But it would be wrong to say that relations between Turkey and the SSA countries are cloudless.

First, in 2014, Turkish policy in Africa was threatened in an unexpected way -due to internal political differences between Recep Erdogan and his former ally Fethullah Gulen - among other things, the founder of Hizmet, a network of Turkish educational and religious institutions around the world. Erdogan has effectively declared Gulen Turkey's number one enemy; his supporters are being arrested across the country. Erdogan asked African leaders to close Turkish Hizmet schools across the continent, promising in return to open new schools already on the state line, but received almost nothing but refusals.

In this regard, some African officials have accused Turkey of interfering in internal affairs, similar to the colonial practice ³⁷. Turkey is very sensitive to any comparison of the policy of the Ottoman Empire in Africa with the colonial policy of European powers. No other action was taken, but mutual trust was somewhat undermined. In addition, what used to be Turkey's main advantage in Africa - strong ties at the level of civil society and non-governmental organizations-has become its weakness.

Secondly, Turkey's failed intervention in the internal affairs of North African countries did not go unnoticed in the SSA. The fact that Turkey, or rather its current government, thinks of itself as the leader of the Islamic world is obvious to the naked eye. Erdogan, whom the opposition Turkish press refers to as the sultan, relies in his ambitions on the world's second-largest Muslim economy after Indonesia and on a political ideology based on modernization based on Islam. The prospects for economic cooperation with Turkey are obvious. But the ideology of Turkey and the Muslim Brotherhood it supports has been defeated in North African countries - so why should the leaders of the Muslim SSA countries follow Turkey in political terms?

In addition, Turkey has a whole trail of accusations of promoting radical Islamic movements. At the end of 2015, the Russian press was filled with accusations that the Turkish authorities were aiding the Islamic State. In addition, Turkey was accused of transporting fighters of the Libyan Islamist coalition Dawn of Libya from Syria to Tripoli.³⁸

Perhaps no less disturbing for Turkey's African partners were the recordings of telephone conversations that appeared on the Internet in 2014 between an adviser to Erdogan and representatives of Turkish Airlines, where they discussed the supply of weapons to the Nigerian terrorist organization Boko Haram by ³⁹ Turkish airlines planes. The airline hastened to publish a refutation ⁴⁰, and the Turkish government attributed the accusations to the machinations of the opposition associated with F. Gulen. But as more and more evidence of cooperation between the Turkish authorities and international Islamists appears, these records are becoming more plausible.

It is significant that if in 2008 Turkey was elected a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council with the overwhelming support of African countries (51 votes), then in the 2014 elections. Turkey missed out on many African votes and did not return to the Security Council. Moreover, not only Egypt, but also some SSA countries actively opposed Turkey ⁴¹.

Third, at the 2014 Turkey-Africa summit, another shortcoming of Turkey's African policy was clearly articulated from the African point of view: according to Afro-Union President Dlamini-Zuma, although Turkey has made great progress in establishing bilateral relations with individual African countries, cooperation between Turkey and the African Union is developing extremely rapidly. slowly. Even the decisions of the first Turkey-Africa summit, held back in 2009, remain unrealized.⁴² If Turkey really wants to become one of the largest players on the African continent, it should still pay more attention to multilateral cooperation, Dlamini-Zuma believes.

However, summing up, we can say that the potential for the development of Turkish-African relations is far from exhausted. The development of cultural, educational and religious ties will continue to be a factor of deepening cooperation, but the importance of the economic factor will increase.

The main factors of cooperation are the presence of Ankara's political will and the growth of the Turkish and African economies.

The main risk is Turkey's attempts to interfere in the internal political affairs of African countries,

it supports radical Islamic movements.

The role of SSA, where these risks are still less, will grow. Especially noticeable is the potential for Turkish-African cooperation in the Greater Horn of Africa, where cultural and historical ties with Turkey are stronger, where there are no religious barriers and there are fewer logistical difficulties.

¹ G20 Energy Ministers Convene Historic Meeting, Adopt Communique // International Institute for Sustainable Development,

3.10.2015 - http://energy-l.iisd.org/news/g20-energy-ministers-convene-historic-meeting-adopt-communi que

² Renewable Energy in Turkey // Flanders Investment, December 2014 - http://www.flandersinvestmentandtrade.com/export/sites/trade/files/market_studies/62414122 9132036/624141229132036_1.pdf

³ How Turkey Went From 'Zero Problems' to Zero Friends // Foreign Policy, 22.08.2013 - http://foreignpolicy.com/2013/08/22/how-turkey-went-from-zero-problems-to-zero-friends/

⁴ Problems with the neighbours // Economist, 28.01.2015 -http://www.economist.eom/node/21543591

⁵ Zero problems with neighbors turned into complete problems with neighbors // Today's Zaman, 23.08.2015 - http://www.todayszaman.com/monday-talk_tourism-sectors-gur-zero-problems-with-neighbor s-turned-into-complete-problems-with-neighbors_397285.html

⁶ We might see further isolation of Turkey // Today's Zaman,

3.01.2016 - http://www.todayszaman.com/monday-talk_academic-guvenc-we-might-see-further-isolation- of-turkey_408664.html

⁷ Republic of Turkey - Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Turkey - Africa Relations - http://www.mfa.gov.tr/turkey-africa-relations.en.mfa

⁸ For more information, see: Kostelyanets S. V. Turkey and Africa: cooperation is developing / / Asia and Africa today. 2012. N 10. (Kostelyanets S.V. 2012. Turtsiya i Afrika: sotrudnichestvo razvivaetsya // Aziya i Afrika segodnya. N 10) (in Russian)

⁹ Republic of Turkey - Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Turkey -Africa Relations...

¹⁰ Speech by H.E.Recep Tayyip Erdopan, the President of the Republic of Turkey, 21.11.2014 - http://afrika.mfa.gov.tr/21-november-2014-speech-by-HE-recep-tayyip-erdogan-the-president -of-the-republic-of-turkey.en.mfa

¹¹ Ibidem.

¹² Republic of Turkey - Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Turkey -Africa Relations...

¹³ Ibidem.

¹⁴ Global Economic Prospects, January 2016: Spillovers amid Weak Growth // World Bank Group, 2016 - https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/GEP/ GEP2016a/Global-Economic-Prospects-January-2016-Spillovers-amid-weak-growth.pdf

¹⁵ Republic of Turkey - Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Turkey -Africa Relations...

¹⁶ Foreign Trade Statistics Yearbook 2013 // Turkish Statistical Institute - https://biruni.tuik.gov.tr/yayin/views/visitorPages/english/index.zul

¹⁷ Turkey - Bilateral Investment Agreements // UNCTAD -httpyyinvestmentpolicyhub.unctad.org/IIA/CountryBits/214

¹⁸ Double Taxation Treaties in Turkey // Lawyers in Turkey, 11.08.2015 - http://www.lawyer-turkey.com/double-taxation-treaties-turkey

¹⁹ Free trade agreements of Turkey // Ministry of Economy of Turkey, September 2013 - http://yoikk.gov.tr/upload/IDB/FTAsCompatibilityMode.pdf

²⁰ South African Embassy to Turkey - http://www.southafrica.org.tr/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=125%3Aturk ey-south-africa-agree-to-waive-visas-draft-free-trade-agreement&catid=36%3Asouth-africa-t urkish-news&Itemid=64〈=en

²¹ Republic of Turkey - Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Turkey -Africa Relations...

²² Presidency of the Republic of Turkey. Ethiopia -https://www.tccb.gov.tr/en/exclusive/africa/ethiopia

²³ Turkey to invest in Ethiopia's hydropower // 26.01.2015 -http://www.newbusinessethiopia.com/index.php/component/k2/31-construction/211/211

²⁴ Ghana Signs 10 Year Contract to Rent Power Barges // GhanaWeb, 16.10.2014 - http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Ghana-Signs-10-Year-Contract-t o-Rent-Power-Barges-330598

²⁵ Turkey sends Ghana instant floating power station to relieve blackouts // Global Construction Review, 2.12.2015 http://www.globalconstructionreview.com/news/turkey-sends-ghana-instant-flo8at8i8ng-pow er

²⁶ Nigeria: FG Signs MoU With Turkish Company On Power Generation, Transmission // All Africa, 1.12.2014 - http://allafrica.com/stories/201412011895.html

²⁷ Global Economic Prospects, January 2016: Spillovers amid Weak Growth...

²⁸ Republic of Turkey - Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Turkey -Africa Relations...

²⁹ The Future Of World Religions: Population Growth Projections, 2010 - 2050 // Pew Research Center, 2.04.2015 -http://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/sub-saharan-africa

³⁰ The Rise of Diyanet: the Politicization of Turkey's Directorate of Religious Affairs // The Turkey Analyst, 9.10.2015 -http://www.turkeyanalyst.org/publications/turkey-analyst-articles/item/463-the-rise-of-diyan et-the-politicization-of-turkey%E2%80%99s-directorate-of-religious-affairs.html

^{Mehmet Ozkan.} 31 Turkey's Religious Diplomacy // The Arab World Geographer. Vol. 17, No 3 (2014), p. 223 - 237.

³² Presidency of the Republic of Turkey. Djibouti -https://www.tccb.gov.tr/en/exclusive/africa/djibouti

³³ ТЭКА to distribute 1 million copies of the Quran in Africa // Daily Sabah, 12.07.2015 - http://www.dailysabah.com/religion/2015/07/12/tika-to-distribute-l-million-copies-of-the-qur an-in-africa

³⁴ Turkish model in Somalia focus of Daily Sabah's London panel // Daily Sabah, 22.03.2015 - http://www.dailysabah.com/politics/2015/03/22/turkish-model-in-somalia-focus-of-daily-saba hs-london-panel

³⁵ Genel Energy Schedules Odweine Oil Block Seismic Surveys for 2016 // Somaliland Sun, 10.08.2015 - http://somalilandsun.com/index.php/economic/7879-somaliland-genel-energy-schedules-odw eine-oil-block-seismic-surveys-for-2016-

³⁶ Somalia gives Turkish firm 20-year contract to run Mogadishu port // Horseed Media, 26.08.2015 - https://horseedmedia.net/2015/08/26/somalia-gives-turkish-firm-20-year-contract-to-run-mog adishu-port

³⁷ Report reveals repercussions of AK Party fight against Gblen movement in Africa // Today's Zaman, 22.10.2015 - http://www.todayszaman.com/national_report-reveals-repercussions-of-ak-party-fight-against -gulen-movement-in-africa_402254.html

³⁸ Media: Libyan Islamists have begun mass transfer of militants from Syria to Tripoli - http://tass.ru/mezhdunarodnaya-panorama/2321750

³⁹ For more information, see: Denisova T. S. Nigeria-2015: change of leadership / / Asia and Africa Today. 2015, N 8. (Denisova T.S. 2015. Nigeriya-2015: smena rukovodstva // Aziya i Afrika segodnya. N 8). (in Russian)

⁴⁰ Turkish Airlines refutes claims over arms shipments // Hiirriyet Daily News, 19.04.2014 - http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkish-airlines-refutes-elaims-over-arms-shipments-.aspx ?pageID=238&nID=63791&NewsCatID=341

⁴¹ Why the UN Rejected Turkey's Bid for a Security Council Seat? // The California Courier, 23.10.2014 - http://www.tbecaliforniacourier.com/why-the-un-rejected-turkeys-bid-for-a-security-council-s eat

⁴² Statement of the Chairperson of the African Union Commission Dr. Nkosazana Dlamini Zuma, 21.11.2014 - http://summits.au.int/en/sites/default/files/FINAL CP's AFRICA-TURKEYSPEECH21Nov_New(2).pdf

Permanent link to this publication: