N. MASUMOVA, Post-Graduate Student of MGIMO (U)

Globalization is an integral part of the current stage of development of the world economy. Integration processes cover more and more countries, and Muslim states, in particular, Turkey, are increasingly involved in them. The main incentive for Turkey's involvement in the process of globalization is the task of modernizing the country's economy, the possibility of using Western instruments of economic regulation.

In 1959, the Turkish Government headed by A. Menderes first applied for Turkey's associate membership in the European Economic Community (EEC). But after the military coup of 1960, Turkey abandoned this idea, and the application was withdrawn. However, already in 1963, after the return of the civil government to power, the country's leadership again decided to apply for membership in the EEC, considering this as a stimulating factor for the country's economic development. On September 12, 1963, as a result of the negotiations held in Ankara, the Association Agreement with the EEC was signed, the so-called "Ankara Agreement"^.1

THE ANKARA AGREEMENT

The economic purpose of this agreement was to prepare Turkey for the accession to the EEU and, in particular, to reduce the gap between the economy of Turkey and the EEU member states. In accordance with this agreement, the Association Council was established, which included representatives of Turkey, the EAEU member States and the Community's working bodies. An Association Committee (at the level of ambassadors) was also established (as subordinate bodies to the Council) as a permanent body and a Mixed Parliamentary Commission consisting of members of the European Parliament and the National Assembly of Turkey, as a body of democratic control (its powers were limited to the right to propose recommendations) ².

Article 28 of the Agreement stipulated that Turkey would become a full member of the EEC upon the expiration of the Agreement, which provided for the country's gradual entry into the European Community. The first, preliminary phase was to be completed by the end of 1969; the second, transitional phase, covered the period from 1970 to 1995. In the third, final phase, Turkey was to fully integrate into the Community structures and become a full member of the organization. However, in reality, the transition period has been prolonged, and negotiations on Turkey's accession to the organization are still ongoing.

Agricultural exports accounted for the vast majority of Turkish exports to the EAEU countries in the 1960s. In this regard, the member states of the Community granted Turkey trade preferences for a number of agricultural products for the first 5 years: unprocessed tobacco, raisins, figs, hazelnuts, etc. Moreover, Turkey at this stage did not provide the Community with any counter-trade concessions.

The Ankara Agreement was later supplemented by financial and other protocols. In accordance with them, the UES has started providing financial assistance to Turkey, in particular, providing special concessional loans and loans for industrial construction and infrastructure development projects, with installments for up to 25 years. In total, under the 1st Financial Protocol, Turkey received loans totaling 175 million ecu*from 1964 to 1969. At the expense of these funds, the construction of about 30 industrial and infrastructure facilities was financed, including the Kebanskaya HPP (30 million rubles). ecu), Kova hydroelectric power station (5 million), irrigation system on the Gediz River (15 million), etc. ³

Since 1970, the second stage began, which provided for a gradual (over 22 years)implementation of the project. Turkey's reduction of duties, taxes and charges on European imports and, finally, their complete removal and adoption of a Single Community Tariff. Since 1971, the EEC has lifted almost all tariff and non-tariff restrictions on Turkish-made industrial products. Most of its agricultural products were also imported duty-free from Turkey.

GUEST WORKERS AND INVESTMENTS: ONCOMING TRAFFIC

Since the 1960s, there has been a massive outflow of labor from Turkey to the developed countries of Western Europe. In addition to the high unemployment rate, rising inflation and low wages at home contributed to this. The Turkish authorities considered the departure of unskilled labor to European countries as a positive moment in terms of improving the general level of qualification of emigrant workers, acquiring knowledge and skills in operating new equipment, mastering high-tech equipment, which in the future, upon the return of temporary emigrants to their homeland, could be used in Turkish enterprises. In addition, currency transfers of Turkish citizens were one of the main sources of foreign currency entering the country in the 1960s.

* Ecu - the European non-cash unit of account before the introduction of the euro.

From 1961 to 1971, Ankara signed bilateral intergovernmental agreements with a number of European countries interested in cheap labor, regulating the entry of Turkish emigrants and their further employment. In November 1970, a general supplement to the "Ankara Agreement" was signed, the so-called Additional Protocol on the Free Movement of Emigrants. However, in the mid-70s, recruitment of Turkish workers in Western countries was almost stopped due to a sharp reduction in jobs in Europe, there was also a tightening of the conditions for their entry, the procedure for issuing labor visas became more complicated, etc.

In the early 70s, as part of the financial assistance to Turkey, the 2nd financial Protocol with the EEC for 1971-1977 was signed. Among the projects supported by the Community at this stage are an artificial rubber production plant near Izmir, a cotton factory in Edirne, electrification of the railway section between Istanbul and Adapazari, construction of a combined heat and power plant in Elbistan and commissioning of the Afsino-Elbistan power complex, etc. The construction of a bridge across the Bosphorus was also of great importance for the development of Turkey's trade and economic ties with Europe.

Along with attracting foreign investment to the country, Turkey actively used licensing and patent agreements. Production of such high-demand goods as household refrigerators, vacuum cleaners, etc. was established under foreign licenses. Joint ventures have been launched in the country with the participation of major companies of the EAEU member states: Fiat, Renault, British Motor Corporation, MAN, Magirus-Deutz, Daimler-Benz, Pirelli, Mannesman, Philips, etc. On the one hand, this kind of cooperation made Turkey dependent on the import of foreign components, but, on the other hand, it contributed to the influx of foreign capital investments into the country and increased employment in the labor market.

Both the EEC and Turkey were interested in developing economic relations. Europe needed stable sources of raw materials (Turkey occupies a leading position in the extraction of manganese, chromium and copper ore), labor and sales markets; in turn, Turkey needed to ensure stable exports of its agricultural products, modernize its industry, ensure the possibility of labor migration to Europe of its surplus labor force and obtain European loans for the production of agricultural products. infrastructure development. Until the early 1970s, trade and economic relations between the two countries developed successfully and efficiently. The Turkish economy has reached a qualitatively new level and has begun to integrate smoothly into the UES.

THE LOST DECADE

The crisis in relations between Turkey and the UES emerged in the mid-70s. It was the reason for a ten-year break in Turkey's progressive movement towards integration into the European Community. There were several reasons for this crisis.

First, in the 1970s, the EEC's foreign economic relations with developing countries and Southern European countries significantly expanded - a number of preferential bilateral agreements were signed with India, Iran, Spain and other countries in the field of agriculture, which caused dissatisfaction with the government of Turkey, which received similar preferences as a result of many years of negotiations with the EEC.

Second, the trade deficit with the EEU countries began to outpace the overall foreign trade deficit of Turkey, which caused the balance of payments deficit and currency shortage in the country in the late 70s. In this situation, the planned reduction of customs duties on imports from the EAEU countries, provided for in the Additional Protocol to the Ankara Agreement, caused sharp criticism of the government's foreign economic policy in Turkey, and the latter was forced to postpone this measure.

Third, while the Turkish government was trying to create an import-substituting model of the economy, the UES was already planning to create a free trade zone, free movement of capital and labor within the Community. Thus, there was a clear inconsistency of economic models, which complicated the process of Turkey's integration into the EEU.

Fourth, since the early 1970s, the textile industry of European countries has faced quite tough competition from a number of developing countries, including Turkey. And since all this developed against the backdrop of the oil crisis of 1973-1975, the member states of the EEC were forced to take measures to protect their economies. For example, the United Kingdom unilaterally imposed absolute quotas* on cotton imported from Turkey in 1975. In 1978, similar restrictions were imposed by the EEC on Turkish cotton fiber and textiles.⁴

The economic crisis of 1978-1980 in Turkey forced Ankara to reconsider its economic strategy. At the beginning of 1980, the government came to power, which set a course for more extensive use of market mechanisms in the country's economy. In accordance with the recommendations of the IMF, Turkey began to pursue a policy of economic liberalization. The Government has worked hard to promote export-oriented industries and limit government intervention in the economy.

In July 1980, at a regular meeting of the Association Council, it was decided that Turkey would soon apply for full membership in the EEC. However, on September 12, 1980, a military coup took place in Turkey, which again slowed down the country's integration into the EEC.

The National Security Council (NSC), formed by the military, suspended the Constitution, dissolved Parliament, and imposed a state of emergency. These steps were perceived by the Community as a violation of human rights. In 1981, Turkey's historical opponent, Greece, was admitted to the EEC, which further hindered the process of Turkey's integration into the EEC in every possible way. The Cyprus problem also remained unresolved.⁵ Only in 1982-1983, after Turkey returned to civilian rule, did the EU - Turkey negotiation process resume.

Analyzing the economic situation

* Absolute quota - the legally established quantity of goods allowed for import and export.

The development of Turkey in the period from the signing of the "Ankara Agreement" to 1983, it can be argued that significant progress was made on the path of integration with Europe, despite the difficulties. First, the signing of the agreement itself was an important step that was of great economic and geopolitical importance for Turkey. Secondly, the EU countries became the main foreign trade partners of Turkey, which contributed to the deepening of economic relations between the parties. Third, thanks to the assistance of the Community, the tasks of the transition of the Turkish economy from mainly agricultural specialization to industrial-agrarian specialization were gradually solved.

At the same time, the second stage of the implementation of the "Ankara Agreement" showed that the Turkish economy is not yet ready to compete on an equal footing with the economies of the Community countries, which, in turn, hindered the process of removing protectionist barriers and hindered the free movement of goods and services, capital and labor. Under the influence of Europe, the Turkish statistic model* was transformed into a "mixed" one in the 60s and 70s. But by the end of the 1970s, the principles of the "free market"had already become fundamental for the EEU countries.

FROM PROTECTIONISM TO THE CUSTOMS UNION

With the coming to power of a civilian government in Turkey in 1983 and the beginning of economic liberalization, negotiations on the country's accession to the EEC resumed. Ankara has accepted the IMF's recommendations on gradual transition of the economy to market principles. In April 1987, the Government of Turkey, headed by T. Ozalom, one of the "fathers" of Turkey's market reforms, has once again applied for full membership in the EEC, as well as in the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Atomic Energy Community.

The application was considered for a long time, but in 1989 the European Commission decided to postpone Turkey's accession to the Community due to the inconsistency of its internal economic and social policy with the norms of the EEC. Ankara was given recommendations on further steps towards integration into the organization.

In line with these recommendations, Turkey has taken measures to further reform the economy: the procedure for registering enterprises with foreign capital has been simplified, tax reform has been carried out, state control over prices has been abolished, etc.

The integration process has reached a new level, and the conditions and principles of functioning of the economies of the member states and Turkey have become closer. At the same time, the adaptation of the Turkish economy to the requirements of the European market took place under rather harsh conditions, since Turkey did not receive the previously promised financial assistance from the European Union for the purpose of economic restructuring: the allocation of $ 3.2 billion to it was blocked by Greece. ⁶

By the mid-1990s, Turkey had fulfilled almost all the conditions stipulated in the 1970 Additional Protocol and necessary for the creation of a customs union between it and the countries of the European Union**. In March 1995, the Agreement on the Customs Union in Trade in Industrial Goods was signed, which entered into force on January 1, 1996. In essence, this meant Turkey's entry into the final stage of preparation for EU membership.

After the customs union was formed, quantitative restrictions and anti-dumping duties were lifted in mutual trade in industrial goods, including textile products and refined petroleum products. The Turkish side has committed to bring its legislation in the field of intellectual property protection in line with EU standards. At the same time, the EU has granted Turkey a 5-year transition period to support and protect national production in sectors that are particularly sensitive to its economy.

At first, many people feared that the conclusion of a customs union with the EU would cause an influx of industrial goods from Europe to Turkey and lead to the disappearance of medium and small national industries that would not be able to compete with European-made products. However, such forecasts did not materialize.

As already mentioned, the Agreement on the Customs Union applies so far only to industrial goods. For the time being, the Turkish side continues to levy import duties on agricultural products imported from Europe, in particular, a special customs fee is levied, which is directed to the Mass Housing Construction Fund. But the parties continue to negotiate the extension of the customs union regime to this area of trade as well. The European Union demands that Ankara bring the country's agricultural policy in line with the norms of the organization and abandon the policy of supporting prices used to oust competitors from the domestic market and limit the profits of foreign producers. But negotiations are difficult. It should be noted that agriculture is a socially significant and vulnerable sector for Turkey, and the share of the economically active population employed in the agricultural sector reaches 35%⁷.

At the same time, the Turkish side is growing dissatisfied with the results of the agreement on the customs union for industrial group products already in force since 1996. Turkey's negative trade balance with the EU countries has not been reduced, which puts a heavy burden on its economy (see the table).

The conditions of functioning of the Turkish economy after the conclusion of the agreement with the European Union have changed dramatically - Turkish industrial products are no longer protected by protectionist barriers. But on the other hand, Turkey gained access to the markets of third countries that have free trade agreements with the EU.

It should be noted that Turkey was the first country to enter into a customs union with the EU without being a member. The conclusion of this agreement brought Turkey closer to the desired goal, however, the final terms of its accession to the European Union as a full member have not yet been precisely determined, although Europe is certainly interested in Turkey as its economic and geopolitical partner.

* Statism is a special form of state capitalism.

** In November 1993, the EEC was renamed the European Union (EU).

Table

Dynamics of foreign trade between Turkey and the EU countries in 1994-2006 (in billions of dollars)*

* Calculated by: 1) Modern Islamic East and Western Countries, Moscow, 2004, p. 83. 2) International Monetary Fund. Direction of Trade Statistics. Yearbook 2006. P. 364 - 366.

CONTRADICTIONS WITH THE EU AND WAYS TO RESOLVE THEM

At the end of 1997, relations between Turkey and the EU were again strained due to uncertainty about the prospects of Turkey's accession to this grouping, after the European Union, after a meeting of heads of state and government in Luxembourg, announced the start of negotiations on full membership with Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovenia, Estonia and Cyprus. At the same time, Turkey did not even get into the second wave of expansion. The EU's position was explained by the fact that the country does not yet meet the economic and political requirements of this organization, formulated at the EU meeting in Copenhagen in 1993 and subsequently called the "Copenhagen criteria".

Political criteria include the rule of law, ensuring and protecting fundamental human rights and freedoms, as well as the rights and freedoms of national minorities.

Economic criteria mean that the state needs to ensure the stable functioning of the economy under market conditions, which, in turn, includes price liberalization, protection of property rights, and development of the financial sector. To meet these criteria, Turkey, in particular, must implement the IMF and WB stabilization programs, privatize state-owned enterprises and banks, implement market principles in the energy and agricultural sectors, and reduce its external debt.

Administrative criteria determine the parameters of the functioning of the legislative, judicial and executive branches, as well as the ability of a country to ensure the fulfillment of all assumed responsibilities and obligations after its accession to the EU.

In December 1999, having fulfilled a number of mandatory requirements, Turkey was finally officially included in the list of candidates for EU membership at the next meeting of the EU Heads of State and Government. Thus, relations between the EU and Turkey have entered a new phase.

In the early 1990s, the Turkish economy developed rapidly. However, the financial crises of 1998 and 2001 destabilized the economic situation, and many macroeconomic indicators deteriorated. In 2002, the pro-Islamist Justice and Development Party (AKP) led by R. Erdogan came to power in the country. The new government has taken a number of measures to restructure and liberalize the economy and bring the country out of the prolonged crisis. During the AKP's time in power, the overall state of the economy has improved, and internal political stability has been strengthened.

Today, Turkey has one of the fastest growing economies in Europe , with an average annual GDP growth rate of 5-8% ^.8 In terms of export growth - 33% per year - it currently ranks 5th in the world, and its share in world trade exceeded ¹%in 2005.9 Turkey's GDP was $ 482 billion in 2007.* In 2008, the English magazine "Economist" predicts its growth of 5.3% ¹⁰.

In 2006, EU countries accounted for 51.7% of Turkish exports ¹¹. At the same time, there is a steady increase in imports from EU countries. Turkey's largest trade and economic partners in Europe are Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain and the United Kingdom, which account for 83.2% of all Turkish trade turnover with the EU12 countries.

TURKEY AND FOREIGN INVESTMENT

To attract foreign capital to the country, Ankara has significantly liberalized its national investment legislation, and since 2003, under the new law "On Foreign Direct Investment", foreign companies have the same rights and obligations in Turkey as domestic ones, and profits can be freely exported from the country. Investors are allowed to create companies with 100% foreign capital. In recent years, the number of companies with European capital participation has grown significantly. Thus, if only 2,158 such companies were created in Turkey in the period from 1954 to 1999, 263 were registered in 2000, 227 in 2002, and 2,088 in ²⁰⁰⁶¹³, which indicates a favorable investment climate in the country.

According to the Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey, the volume of foreign direct investment (FDI) in the country is growing rapidly. In 2001. They amounted to about $ 1 billion, and in 2006 the European Union alone accounted for $ 14.6 billion, ¹⁴ or 82.1% of all FDI in Turkey.

In particular, thanks to foreign investment in modern art-

* For comparison, Turkey's GDP was $ 67.2 billion in 1985, $ 169.3 billion in 1995, $ 302.8 billion in 2004, and $ 363.3 billion in 2005. See: Turkey at a glance, 2006 http://devdata.worldbank.org/AAG/tur_aag.pdf

Thanks to the Turkish textile industry, it was possible to increase the competitiveness of this industry in the European market and increase its export potential. In 2005, exports of Turkish textiles and ready-to-wear reached $ 18.7 billion, accounting for 27.1% of the total value of industrial products exported.¹⁵ The European carmakers Fiat and Renault formed quite successful joint ventures Tofash-Fiat and Oyak-Renault in Turkey, which already in 1998 provided more than 2/3 of the total production of passenger cars in the country, and some of their products were exported.¹⁶

In turn, Turkish construction and investment companies are increasingly successful abroad. Projects with the participation of Turkish capital are related to the modernization of airports, energy, metalworking, construction of gas and oil pipelines, oil exploration and production, investments in the textile industry, leather processing and the production of various kinds of equipment. Turkish construction companies are actively investing in Germany, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, as well as in Eastern European countries17. This indicates that Turkish capital is already quite active in the European Union.

In June 2000, the General Secretariat for EU Affairs was established in Turkey, and the country started implementing the Copenhagen Conditions. Between 2000 and 2004, the country adopted a number of new laws and implemented important constitutional reforms, such as abolishing the death penalty, allowing radio broadcasting in the languages of national minorities, removing a number of restrictions on parties and trade unions, recognizing gender equality, ¹⁸ and strengthening public control over the military.

The duties, functions and structure of the National Security Council were changed. According to the amendment made to the Constitution, the NSC became only an advisory body, consisting mostly of civilians. In August 2004, a civilian became Secretary General of the National Security Service for the first time. EU auditors were allowed to inspect military and defense expenditures. The jurisdiction of the military court has been narrowed, and it no longer has the right to try civilians for criticizing the military.¹⁹

In 2005, the Turkish Parliament adopted new Civil and Criminal Codes. In accordance with the recommendations of the European Commission, changes were made to the national legislation on the protection of citizens ' rights and freedoms. Efforts were made to fight corruption, which was positively received in the EU.

Today, there are still a number of economic problems hindering the process of Turkey's admission to the EU.

First, it is a question of uneven development of the country's regions. Thus, while large industrial centers such as Istanbul, Ankara, Izmir, and the tourist areas of the Black and Mediterranean Seas are developing steadily, using modern technologies in the field of production and services, the vast territories in the east of Turkey are far behind the south and west in terms of development and well-being.

Secondly, it is a solution to the problems of Turkish agriculture (in particular, bringing phytosanitary and veterinary standards in line with EU standards and regulating grain purchase prices). According to European experts, if Turkey is accepted into the European Union, it will cost the EU 11.3 billion euros. This is more than is necessary for the integration of the agricultural sector in the EU of the ^{ten countries that joined the organization in May 2004.20}

Third, a few years ago, throughout the 1990s, the Turkish economy was characterized by a high level of inflation, measured in two-and even three-digit figures, which caused financial instability and hindered the flow of capital investment into the economy. To this we can add the continuing large budget deficit, high interest rates on bank loans, and large external and domestic debt.

Only by 2004, inflation was reduced to 9% per year, and as a result, by the end of 2005, the economic situation in the country improved. However, reforms in the banking and social sectors are lagging behind, these areas do not yet meet EU requirements, the privatization of enterprises is slow, and the country still has a high unemployment rate.

WHO IS "FOR" AND WHY "AGAINST"

The opinions of various EU member states regarding Turkey's accession are currently radically different. Countries such as Spain, Portugal, Italy, and the United Kingdom are in favor of its entry, while Austria, France, Belgium, and the Netherlands are strongly opposed. Part of the reason for this is the problem of migrants from third world countries that has become more acute in a number of European countries in recent years, as well as the economic and social conflicts associated with them.

Experts from the London School of Economics estimate that the European Union, in the first years after Turkey's admission to it, will have to spend up to ¹¹% of the union budget annually on adapting the Turkish economy and social sphere to EU21 standards. On the other hand, according to the Financial Times, Turkey's membership in the EU would provide the Muslim world with real evidence that Islam is compatible with European values, including democracy, the rule of law, and respect for fundamental human rights and freedoms.²²

Opponents of Turkey's accession to the European Union also fear that by becoming a member, Turkey will be the largest EU country by population and, consequently, will receive the largest number of votes in the European Parliament.

Nevertheless, in October 2005, negotiations between the EU and Turkey on full membership of the latter officially began, thus opening the final stage in the development of the partnership, which should end with Turkey's full integration into the European Union. However, Turkey will have to go through a complex procedure to check its readiness to join the organization.

Thus, the report of the European Commission of November 8, 2006, which examined Ankara's compliance with the political and economic criteria for membership, gave an unsatisfactory assessment of the implementation of 8 out of 35 points of mandatory EU requirements, in particular, on such positions -

free movement of goods and services, financial sector, agricultural development, fisheries, transport, customs procedures and foreign policy aspects (Cyprus issue)²³. As a result, negotiations on Turkey's accession to the organization were frozen at the EU summit in December 2006. But already on March 30, 2007. The EU decided to resume the negotiation process on economic policy and industrial enterprises, and in June 2007 - on financial control.

The latest report of 6 November 2007, on the contrary, recorded progress in both the political and economic spheres, and noted that the Turkish Government is successfully implementing reforms towards full EU membership and is ready to continue to comply with all the requirements and recommendations of the European Commission24.

From this we can conclude that Turkey, by gradually fulfilling all the requirements imposed on it, will eventually be able to become a full member of the European Union, but, as it seems, not before 2015-2020. At the same time, opponents of its adoption are increasingly expressing an alternative idea of a certain "privileged partnership" for Turkey, but Ankara categorically rejects any other option than full membership.

Turkey has been put forward additional conditions for joining. Perhaps the most serious and fundamental issue today is Ankara's recognition of the Republic of Cyprus. This political issue is one of the mandatory conditions for accession and, at the same time, a powerful lever of pressure on Ankara from the EU. In addition, Turkey should open its seaports and airspace to the Republic of Cyprus.

According to those experts who call the most likely date for Turkey's accession to the European Union 2015-2020, these 7-12 years are necessary for it to overcome the remaining gap in socio-economic development. By then, Turkey's economic potential will undoubtedly increase significantly, but so will its demographic potential, given the high population growth rate. In this regard, Europe fears that after Turkey's accession, an unprecedented migration of Turkish labor to EU countries will begin. Some 3.5 million Turkish migrants are already living in the EU countries. Meanwhile, it is known that a number of European countries have experienced problems with the integration of migrants from Muslim countries in recent years. Therefore, the issue of free movement of labor remains one of the intractable issues in the negotiations between Turkey and the EU.

It is no secret that a number of EU member states would like to see this community as a kind of" Christian club", in which there will be no place for Muslim countries, and even more so for those where pro-Islamist parties are in power.

Nevertheless, Turkey is purposefully moving towards full membership in the organization. Most of the EU requirements were met by Turkey by the end of 2006 (27 points out of 35). For the remaining 8 items (see above), the positions are still being coordinated. In June 2007, a new round of negotiations was held in Istanbul, focusing on energy and Turkey's accession to the European Energy Charter.

Not least is Turkey's unique geopolitical position, located between East and West, which has attracted European countries for centuries. Of course, Europe will not want to lose its strategic partner in the Middle East, and since Turkey only agrees to full membership in the EU, sooner or later the European Union will have to accept it as a member and thereby recognize that the European principles of the economic and political system can be applied in a Muslim country.

For its part, Ankara, having set itself the task of joining the EU, really strives to ensure high economic growth rates, takes care of creating a favorable economic environment in the country and makes active efforts towards integration into the EU, considering this path of development to be the most optimal for itself.

¹ Turkish Modernisation and the European Union: A Historical Perspective // Journal of International Affairs. Special Issue on Turkey-European Union Relations. Autumn 2004. Vol. IX, N 3, p. 8.

^{Kunakov V. V.} 2 Turkey and the EU: Problems of Economic integration, Moscow, 1999, p. 11.

³ Ibid., p. 16.

⁴ Ibid., pp. 24-25.

⁵ In the 60s and 70s, Cyprus, inhabited by Greeks and Turks, repeatedly experienced bloody clashes between the Greek and Turkish communities. Since 1974, the Greek and Turkish parts of Cyprus have been separated by a "green line" controlled by UN peacekeepers.

⁶ Turkey between Europe and Asia. Results of Europeanization at the end of the XX century. Moscow: IV RAS: Kraft+, 2001, p. 344.

⁷ Finance. N 19. 22 - 28 мая 2006 - http://www.finansmag.ru/of-fline/num 156/mirovie finansi/28760

⁸ The World Factbook - www.cia.gov

^{Guryev A. A.} 9 The Justice and Development Party of Turkey: Three years in power - http://www.iimes.ru /rus/stat/2005/30 - 11 - 05b.htm

¹⁰ The Economist. The World in 2008, p. 110.

¹¹ European Commission Trade Issues - http://ec.europa.eu/tra-de/issues/bilateral/countries/turkey/indexen.htm

¹² Calculated by: International Monetary Fund. Direction of Trade Statistics. Yearbook 2006. Cod. 186.

¹³ Turkish Treasury. Statistics of the Undersecretariat of Treasury - http://www.treasury.gov.tr

^{BaBbakanlak T. C.} 14 Hazine MDsteOarlDDD - http://www.trea-sury.gov.tr/english/turkeyfdireport_2002.pdf

¹⁵ Turkey 2006. Indicators of development in economic sectors. See: http://www.byegm.gov.tr/YAYINLARIMIZ/kitaplar/turkiye2006/russ ia/290 - 291.htm

¹⁶ Republic of Turkey. Handbook, Moscow, 2000, p. 220.

^{Savel'eva A.V.} [Turkey and the EU at the present time]. Vostokovedny sbornik, Moscow, 2006.

¹⁸ Orientalist Collection (issue six), Moscow, 2004, p. 127.

¹⁹ Islam and social development at the beginning of the XXI century. Moscow: Kraft+, 2005 p. 235.

^{Guryev A. L.} 20 Prospects of Turkey's accession to the EU - http://www.iimes.ru/rus/stat/2005/14 - 07 - 05.htm

^{Guryev A. L.} 21 EU-Turkey: negotiations have begun. What's next? -http://www.iimes.ru/rus/stat/2005/12 - 10 - 05.htm

²² Cit. by: Islam and social development.., p. 240.

²³ Commission of the European Communities. Commission Staff Working Document. Turkey 2006 Progress Report. Brussels, 08.11.2006.

²⁴ Commission of the European Communities... Turkey 2007. Progress Report. Brussels, 06.11.2007.

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